Blog & lookbook - Introduction: The Celts

The Celtic peoples were a group of Indo-European peoples in Europe and Anatolia, identified by their use of Celtic languages and other cultural similarities.

Origin of the Celts

The origins of the Celts and their history are viewed in different ways. The traditional theory, "Celts from the East," suggests that the Proto-Celtic language emerged in the Urnfield culture in Central Europe around 1200 BC and later spread through the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Another theory, "Celts from the West," suggests that Proto-Celtic developed in the Atlantic coastal zone. A third theory, "Celts from the Centre," places the origin in Bronze Age Gaul, from where the culture spread.

Archaeological Cultures & Migrations

In archaeology, we refer to many different cultures. Sometimes these overlap with ethnic cultures, but often they do not. At the same time, the transition between cultures should not be seen in black and white. In many cases, it was simply a change in customs. See this article for more information about archaeological and ethnic cultures.

Genetic Studies

Genetic studies show a clear connection between the Celts and earlier Indo-European cultures, such as the Corded Ware culture, the later Bell Beaker culture, and the Urnfield culture. The haplogroup R-M269 (originating from Indo-European steppe peoples) is frequently found among the Celts. There is evidence of genetic interaction between the Celtic peoples of Europe.

Celtic Languages

The earliest Celtic languages appear in inscriptions from 600 BC, and the Celtic literary tradition begins with Irish texts from 800 AD. The Celts were often in conflict with the Romans and Greeks, so historical sources about the Celts are typically hostile. Historical evidence of the Celts comes from writers such as Ephorus, Polybius, and Pausanias, who describe the Gauls and their conflicts with Rome.

The name 'Celts' was first used by the Greek geographer Hecataeus in 517 BC and later by Romans such as Julius Caesar. The etymology of the name is unclear but is often associated with words meaning "the hidden people."

The Celtic languages belong to the Indo-European language family and branch into Celtiberian, Gaelic, and Brythonic. The earliest traces of the language are Lepontic inscriptions from Northern Italy, followed by Gaulish and Celtiberian inscriptions. Early Celtic languages were further spread through inscriptions and place names.

Hallstatt Period

The Hallstatt culture was the dominant archaeological culture in Western and Central Europe during the Late Bronze Age (Hallstatt A, Hallstatt B) from 1200 to 800 BC and the Early Iron Age (Hallstatt C, Hallstatt D) from 800 to 600 BC. It emerged from the Urnfield culture and was replaced in many areas by the La Tène culture.

By 600 BC, the culture expanded into large areas, divided into two zones, east and west. These covered much of Western and Central Europe, up to the Alps, and extended into Northern Italy. Parts of Great Britain and Iberia were also part of the eventual spread of the culture.

Hallstatt Culture

The culture was based on agriculture, but metalworking was highly developed. Toward the end of the period, trade within the region and with Mediterranean cultures played an important role. The Hallstatt culture showed a strong influence of the Celtic languages. The Golasecca culture in Northern Italy, which emerged from the Canegrate culture, had strong similarities with the western Hallstatt culture, and inscriptions in the Lepontic Celtic language support the idea that the early Hallstatt language was also Celtic. This is also true for the Umbrians, who developed a culture similar to the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures.

Trade during the Hallstatt period was facilitated by contacts with Greece, involving the import of luxury goods such as Attic black-figure pottery, amber, ivory, and wine. Major Hallstatt settlements, such as Heuneburg and Mont Lassois, were often fortified and located on hilltops. These so-called "princely seats" were the cultural centers, featuring richly decorated burial mounds and imposing structures. The Hallstatt population was organized into different social classes, with the elite becoming wealthy through trade in luxury goods.

During the Hallstatt period, burial rituals changed, shifting from cremation to inhumation, with grave offerings playing an important role. High-status graves often contained luxurious items such as weapons, jewelry, and wagons, which were sometimes buried alongside the deceased. These burial rituals indicate a hierarchical society.

Technologically, the Hallstatt people were highly advanced. They used iron for weapons and tools, and the production of iron swords and steel began around 800 BC. Pottery production with a potter's wheel and the development of spoked wheels for wagons were also key innovations of this period. The Hallstatt culture also used standardized length measurements for construction and employed advanced techniques in carpentry and geometry.

Hallstatt Art

Hallstatt art was characterized by geometric patterns, often found on metal objects and weapons. In the later phases of the culture, more human figures and narrative scenes appeared, often influenced by Etruscan and Greek art. The import of luxury art influenced local styles, as seen in objects such as the Strettweg cult wagon and the famous Hirschlanden warrior.

At the end of the Hallstatt period, around 500 BC, many larger settlements were abandoned, and people returned to smaller, more decentralized villages. This marked the transition to the La Tène culture. The causes of these changes remain uncertain.

La Tène Period

The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the Late Iron Age, from around 450 BC to the Roman conquest in 100 BC. The La Tène culture succeeded the Hallstatt culture without a clear cultural break.

The territory of the La Tène culture included what is now France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, England, southern Germany, Czechia, northern Italy, central Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, and Liechtenstein. It also extended into neighboring parts of the Netherlands, Slovakia, Serbia, Croatia, Transylvania (western Romania), and Transcarpathia (western Ukraine). The Celtiberians in western Iberia shared many features of the culture, though not always the artistic style. To the north, the culture extended into the Pre-Roman Iron Age of northern Europe, including the Jastorf culture in northern Germany and Denmark, and even into Galatia in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey).

The La Tène culture was highly diverse, with local differences. The culture is often distinguished from earlier and neighboring cultures by the typical La Tène style in Celtic art, characterized by curved, "swirling" decorations, especially in metalwork.

Significant trade connections are recognized in artifacts found in elite graves. The style of La Tène artifacts reflects influences from Etruscan, Italic, Greek, Dacian, and Scythian art. Greek pottery and scientific techniques such as dendrochronology and thermoluminescence help establish an absolute chronology for some La Tène sites.

History

The final phase of the Hallstatt culture (HaD, around 650–450 BC) was also widespread in Central Europe, and the transition to La Tène was gradual, mainly identifiable through the La Tène style of elite objects, which first appeared at the western edge of the old Hallstatt territory.

By 500 BC, the Etruscans had expanded into the Celtic areas of northern Italy, and trade across the Alps began to surpass trade with the Greeks. Regions such as the Rhine region, the Marne and Champagne regions, and Bohemia became thriving trade centers. Although Mediterranean influences were present, the La Tène style demonstrates that these influences were not the foundation of the new art.

Materials and Culture

La Tène metalwork in bronze, iron, and gold, derived from the Hallstatt culture, is characterized by intricate engravings and inlaid spirals and interwoven patterns, especially on fine bronze objects, helmets, shields, horse gear, and jewelry such as torcs (neck rings) and elaborate fibulae (brooches). It features elegant, stylized animal and plant forms, linked to the geometric patterns of the Hallstatt tradition.

In the early La Tène period, settlements were dominated by the fortified hillforts of tribal leaders. From the middle La Tène period onward, larger settlements known as oppida appeared. The houses were usually not made of stone but were built by carpenters. The La Tène people also dug ritual shafts, where they deposited votive offerings and even human sacrifices.

The grave goods of the elite were often of great value, indicating an extensive trade network. In Vix, France, an elite woman was buried around 600 BC with a massive bronze wine-mixing vessel made in Greece. Exports from La Tène areas to Mediterranean cultures included salt, tin, copper, amber, wool, leather, furs, and gold. Artifacts typical of La Tène culture were also found in regions that were never part of the core area, such as Scandinavia, northern Germany, Poland, and the Balkans.

Celtic Regions

The Celts inhabited a large part of Europe, with key regions in Gaul (modern France), Iberia (Spain and Portugal), Germany, parts of the Balkans, Czechia, parts of Poland, parts of Anatolia, Italy, and the British Isles.

Gaul

In Gaul, referred to by the Romans as the Gauls, the Celtic culture spread from 400 BC onward, making the region a center of the La Tène culture. The Gauls minted their own coins and used Greek letters. Trade along the Rhône Valley began with Greek settlers around 600 BC but was later disrupted. By 200 BC, Rome expanded its influence into Gaul, and after the Gallic Wars (58–51 BC), the region became a significant Roman province with Lugdunensis as the center.

Iberia

In Iberia, the Celts had a significant influence, particularly in the central, western, and northern regions. Key Celtic groups included the Celtiberians in the east, the Celtici in the southwest, and the Gallaeci in the northwest. The Celtiberians developed their own script and minted coins from 200 BC onward. The Castro culture in the northwest maintained strong Celtic traditions.

Germany

In Germany, the Alps, and Italy, the Celts established themselves from the Hallstatt to the La Tène cultures. They founded cities like Milan and conquered large parts of northern Italy, known as Gallia Cisalpina. After their defeat by the Romans in 225 BC, the Celts gradually disappeared from the region.

Eastern Europe

In the east and south, the Celts expanded along the Danube River, where the Scordisci settled in the region of Belgrade, and the Serdi in Thrace founded the city of Serdika. In other parts of Europe, such as Poland and Slovakia, Celtic influence was evident, often through trade and contact.

British Isles

The Celts in the British Isles (Britain and Ireland) were divided into two branches: the Gaelic (Irish and Scottish) and the Brythonic (Welsh and Cornish). The Roman occupation of Britain resulted in a Romano-British culture, while the Irish remained outside the Roman Empire.

Romanization

The Romans conquered Gaul and later Britain, bringing the native peoples into contact with Roman customs. In Gaul, this led to a Roman-Gallic culture, where the Celts gradually adopted Vulgar Latin. The Celts in Britain, however, retained their language to a greater extent.

The Romans were also influenced by the Gauls, particularly in cavalry tactics. They adopted the Celtic sword (spatha), the chainmail armor, and galea helmets, which evolved from Celtic designs. The Romans also adopted local Celtic gods, with the horse goddess Epona becoming widely revered.

Celtic Society

Pre-Christian Celtic society was heavily influenced by Proto-Indo-European social structures of reciprocity. Society was based on classes and kingship, with most tribes being led by kings. Society was often divided into three groups: A warrior aristocracy, An intellectual class of druids, poets, and jurists, The common population. In Ireland and Scotland, there were both high kings and lower kings, with the high king often serving a ritual role. Little is known about family structures, but settlements ranged from decentralized villages to more urban forms, especially in Gaul and the Hallstatt and La Tène regions.

Slavery

Slavery existed in Celtic society, with slaves acquired through wars, raids, or punishment. Slavery was often hereditary, though slaves could also be freed.

Appearance

Celtic men were often described as tall, with blond hair and muscular builds. They treated their hair with lime to make it stiff and thick, and some men shaved their beards while others let them grow.

Gender

Reliable sources on gender roles are limited, but archaeological evidence suggests that women may have played a role in warfare. Some burials depict women with both jewelry and weapons, indicating social status and possible military involvement. Roman and Greek accounts also describe Celtic women as taking active roles in battles, though these reports may have been exaggerated or misunderstood.

Some accounts claim that the Celts in southeastern Europe tolerated male homosexuality, often tied to warrior groups and the absence of women. In Ireland, under the Brehon Law, women had the right to leave their husbands and claim property if he failed to meet his marital obligations.

Warfare

Celtic societies had a long tradition of tribal warfare, often relying on raids and ambushes to achieve political control, disrupt rivals, gain economic advantages, or conquer land. Ancient writers described Celtic warriors as wild and lacking in military discipline, fighting like "wild animals" in hordes, using swords in powerful overhead strikes designed to cleave their enemies.

The primary weapons of the Celts were long swords, better suited for hacking than for stabbing, along with spears and javelins. Some accounts also describe certain Celts fighting naked, possibly influenced by Proto-Indo-European koryos warrior traditions.

Head Hunting

The Celts were known for their practice of head hunting, in which they decapitated their enemies and displayed the skulls. The head was considered the seat of the soul and life force. Greek writers like Posidonius and Diodorus Siculus described how Celtic warriors would hang enemy heads from their horses and display them in their homes, sometimes even preserving them in cedar oil. Roman historian Livy wrote that the Boii tribe gilded the skull of a defeated general and used it as a ceremonial drinking cup. Archaeological finds, such as those at Entremont and Roquepertuse, confirm these accounts, with skulls stored in stone pillars or niches. Severed heads also played a prominent role in Celtic myths, often linked to feasting and prophecy.

Religion and Mythology

The Celtic religion was polytheistic, revolving around numerous deities — over 200 are known. While the specific pantheon varied by region, there were shared structural elements. Since the Celts had no writing system for religious texts, knowledge about their beliefs comes from archaeology, Greek and Roman sources, and early Christian literature.

Like the Greeks and Romans, the Celts likely worshipped a sky father (such as Dyēus) and an earth mother goddess (Dʰéǵʰōm) linked to fertility. Important gods included Taranis (the thunder god, akin to Perkūnas), Lugus (god of craftsmanship), and Epona (the horse goddess), often compared to Poseidon in Greek mythology.

Celtic religious ceremonies were led by druids, who were not only priests but also judges, teachers, and keepers of knowledge. Evidence suggests that the Celts practiced animal sacrifices, and occasionally human sacrifices as well. Roman sources claim that the Celts often conducted rituals in sacred groves, known as nemetons.

Celtic Mythology

Most Celtic myths that have been preserved come from the islands, especially from Ireland and Wales. These stories were mainly written down by Christian monks in the early Middle Ages. In these myths, gods and heroes often come into contact with the "Otherworld" — a parallel world where the gods live. Many of these stories revolve around adventures in this other world, which could be accessed through ancient burial mounds, caves, or water.

The famous heroes of these myths, such as Lugh and Mabon, show similarities with gods from other Celtic regions. Some myths, such as those about the severing of heads, can also be found in the Arthurian legends.

Roman Influence

When the Romans invaded Gaul, many Celtic tribes came under their rule. This had a significant influence on Celtic culture, especially on their religion. The druids lost their power, and mixed Roman-Celtic gods emerged. The Celts also began building stone monuments for their gods, instead of the wooden statues they had previously used.

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