The domestication of the horse is inextricably linked to the migration of the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders and plays a fundamental role in the cultures that emerged from them, including the Celts, Greeks, Romans, and Vikings.
From the moment horses were ridden, a mutual relationship developed between humans and horses. This bond led to their inclusion in mythology and pagan religious practices across Europe. In this blog, we will delve deeper into the origins of this unique connection.Read more about horse veneration here.
Domestication of the Horse
The exact time when the horse was domesticated remains a subject of scientific debate. In his book Horse, the Wheel, and Language, David W. Anthony states that archaeological and genetic studies indicate a period around 4800 BCE, well after the domestication of sheep and cattle. In Western Europe, wild horses were only sporadically eaten by Mesolithic hunter-gatherers; they made up a maximum of 5% of their diet. However, in the steppes of Eastern Europe, horses played a much larger role, comprising up to 40% of the diet. These early interactions can be seen as the first steps toward domestication.
The ancestors of the Proto-Indo-Europeans discovered a unique characteristic of horses: their ability to find food in harsh winter conditions. Sheep and cattle, which had been kept by these peoples for over a thousand years, struggled to reach grass through deep snow because they used their snouts to push the snow aside. Horses, on the other hand, used their hooves to clear snow and ice, allowing them to survive even in severe winters. This made horses a valuable source of winter food.
It is likely that around 4800 BCE, herders began keeping horses, initially primarily for their meat. These herders applied techniques they already knew from cattle herding: by dominating the lead mare, the entire herd could be controlled. The growing significance of horses for steppe peoples is also evident in their burial rituals. From about 4800 BCE, horse skulls and bones were placed in graves alongside those of sheep and cattle.
The domestication of horses was facilitated by the natural behavior of mares. In the wild, mares accept the dominance of a stallion, and this behavior translated to human control within the herd. Stallions, on the other hand, were more difficult to handle due to their aggressive and territorial behavior. This is supported by genetic research: mitochondrial DNA (passed through the mother) shows that domesticated horses descend from a large variety of mares. Research into the Y chromosome suggests that all modern horses may have descended from a single stallion.
Initially, horses were mainly kept for their meat, but over time, they evolved into draft and riding animals. While oxen were initially used to pull carts, between 4000 and 3500 BCE, people began riding horses. This had a significant impact on the lifestyle of herders. A herder on foot could manage about 200 sheep with a good dog, while a herder on horseback could manage up to 500 sheep. The growth of herds required larger grazing areas, leading to border conflicts and tensions between tribes.
To win tribal wars, oath-bound alliances became increasingly important. This, in turn, emphasized the exchange of gifts and the organization of feasts to settle conflicts and strengthen bonds. As a result, the importance of prestige goods grew, including jewelry, boar-tusk ornaments, and objects made of copper and bronze. According to David Anthony, this development reflects a broader societal change, visible in the increase of stone mace heads and jewelry made from boar and horse teeth, as well as copper ornaments.
Old Europe and the End of the Neolithic
The region of Southeast Europe between 6000 and 3500 BCE is often referred to as Old Europe. This area was home to various cultures that shared many characteristics, such as the design of their houses and settlements and their methods of pottery-making. These societies built large settlements, capable of housing thousands of people, and were likely among the first to use wheels. They produced ceramics with extremely thin walls, requiring the ability to fire clay at very high temperatures. Because they could generate such intense heat, they were probably also the first to smelt metal, marking the beginning of the Copper Age, which is often considered a transitional period within the Neolithic.
Marija Gimbutas (1921–1994) became well-known for her speculative theories about Neolithic cultures, which she detailed in three influential books: The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe (1974), The Language of the Goddess (1989), and The Civilization of the Goddess (1991). According to her, the society of Old Europe was peaceful and egalitarian, centered around a mother goddess. She argued that this society was matristic, emphasizing harmony. The androcentric, warlike Indo-European Kurgan culture from the Pontic-Caspian steppe supposedly displaced this system through violence.
Her ideas resonated in the 1960s, influenced by the traumatic experiences of the world wars, communist ideals, and the rise of ecofeminism. Critics such as Bernard Wailes acknowledged her vast knowledge but criticized her lack of critical methodology and her tendency to draw far-reaching conclusions without strong evidence. David Anthony pointed out the absence of proof for a matriarchal society before the Kurgan migrations and highlighted the presence of hillforts and weapons in prehistoric Europe, suggesting that warfare was already a factor before Indo-European influence.
Today, her theories are no longer widely accepted in mainstream scholarship due to a lack of supporting evidence. For instance, men were more often buried with rich grave goods than women. Furthermore, Old Europe was already in decline before Indo-European migration, and this decline was accompanied by internal violence.
The Varna culture in Bulgaria buried its dead in richer graves than those found in the Near East, including in Babylon. In 281 graves from this culture, archaeologists discovered 3,000 gold artifacts, with 2,000 of them concentrated in just four graves. In total, around 6 kg of gold was found in these burials, demonstrating a clear aristocracy that emphasized their status. In both Bulgaria and Romania, there were thousands of inhabited settlements, suggesting a highly developed and complex society.
Warfare in Neolithic Europe
Hunter-gatherers, like nomadic peoples, may have laid claim to grazing or hunting grounds. When other tribes used these lands, they posed a threat to food security. This suggests that warfare may have occurred long before the first farmers, although no direct evidence has been found. The American First Nations often referred to their neighbors with strikingly insulting terms, indicating bitter conflicts among them as well.
The rise of systematic warfare is linked to sedentism, which followed the development of agriculture. In Neolithic Europe, particularly in the Linear Pottery Culture (LBK), numerous signs of violence and conflict have been discovered, such as the massacres of Talheim (34 bodies) and Schletz (over 1,000 bodies), both around 5500 BCE. At Talheim, it was found that men and children of a local group were killed, while women were taken captive. This suggests raiding and the abduction of women during these conflicts. The role women played in these conflicts does not support the idea of a matriarchal society.
The Schletz site showed that fortifications were built to protect settlements from aggressors, and the victims there also displayed signs of mass violence. In Schöneck-Kilianstädten, victims were deliberately mutilated.
Besides conflicts over women, struggles over land, resources, and possible revenge also played a role. Bioarchaeological research indicates that over 10% of early farmers in Northwest Europe suffered weapon-related injuries, highlighting the pervasive nature of violence. Although the existence of organized warfare is debated, these archaeological findings make it clear that violence and rivalry between groups were significant aspects of Neolithic life.
The Decline of Old Europe
Around 4200 BCE, the climate changed, with catastrophic consequences for agricultural societies. The Neolithic tell villages, which had been inhabited for thousands of years, disappeared. In many cases, evidence suggests a violent end.
Due to climate change, Proto-Indo-European steppe herders moved toward Europe. By 3500 BCE, increasing evidence of these nomadic herders appears in Eastern Europe. They differed greatly from Neolithic farmers: they did not use Venus figurines and had no urbanized culture.
Interestingly, the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture flourished during this period. The people in this culture built increasingly larger settlements, and the region became more densely populated, possibly due to refugees from the Kunda Culture. Finds from this time include not only their characteristic pottery but also steppe-style pottery and stone mace heads from the steppe.
It is possible that Proto-Indo-European steppe herders even lived part of the year in these cities, perhaps for trade events or as hired herders. Just beyond the border, in the steppe, the Cucuteni-Trypillia people built the Menoi settlement, which was likely inhabited only at certain times of the year. These changes indicate the development of relationships between Old Europe and the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders.
Why There Was No Proto-Indo-European Horde
According to Marija Gimbutas, the steppe peoples destroyed Old Europe as a violent "horde," but this theory is incorrect.
Between 3500 and 3000 BCE, horseback warfare did not yet exist. The Proto-Indo-Europeans used longbows with stone arrowheads, which were difficult to use from horseback. The concept of organized cavalry only emerged much later, around 1000 BCE.
The Proto-Indo-European warrior culture revolved around individual achievements and heroism. This is reflected in works like the Rig Veda and the Greek Iliad. Large, organized armies, like those of the Huns or Scythians, did not yet exist, as such military structures required a different social organization. Tribes did not function as military units but as groups of individuals seeking to prove themselves.
The Neolithic farmers, who were often in conflict with each other and suffered from famines, saw the steppe herders as a potential source of protection and stability. Through intermarriage with steppe herders, their DNA gradually became increasingly Proto-Indo-European.
Genetic research shows that nearly all modern Europeans carry the Proto-Indo-European haplogroups R1a and R1b, which originate from a small group of Proto-Indo-European men. However, mitochondrial DNA (passed through the maternal line) exhibits great diversity of Neolithic origin. This suggests that Proto-Indo-European men frequently married Neolithic women.
As a result, new cultures emerged, such as the Corded Ware Culture and the Baden Culture. Neolithic influences remained visible in later Indo-European civilizations, including the Greeks and Vikings, in elements such as agricultural goddesses, the sun cross, the tree of life, and spiral motifs.
Raiders and Horses
Horses dramatically changed warfare. They enabled rapid raids, increasing the range at which conflicts occurred. Cattle raiding was a primary objective of these expeditions. Thanks to their speed, warriors could disappear without a trace before their victims even realized who had attacked them. The practice of cattle raiding can be linked to the koryos phenomenon: young men would swear loyalty to one another and embark on raiding missions to gain prestige and recognition.
These raids were not typically genocidal but were instead centered on personal glory, a core value of Proto-Indo-European culture. Young men used their loot to pay for a bride price and establish themselves as adults. This concept is reflected in language, where terms for bride price frequently appear.
Bride kidnapping was also practiced, as evidenced in Old Irish and Vedic laws, where abducting a woman was considered a form of marriage. In some cultures, such as among the Scythians, this ritual persisted in a modified form.
The domestication of the horse indirectly led to the formation of new Proto-Indo-European population clusters, expanding beyond their original homeland due to these practices.
Horse Veneration
The impact of the horse on the development of Proto-Indo-European cultures is evident in its prominent role in mythology and religion. Click here to read more in this blog.
Horse reliefs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/epona-relief-gaul.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/relief-chariot-races-circus-maximus.html
Horses in classical antiquity
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-phalera-horse-silver-color.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-phalera-horse-gold-color.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-belt-hook-la-tene-period.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/deepeeka-corinthian-helmet-elite-troops.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/deepeeka-roman-sports-helmet.html
Horses on armor
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/leather-pauldron-epona.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/deepeeka-corinthian-helmet-elite-troops.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/deepeeka-gladiator-helmet-thraex.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/deepeeka-roman-sports-helmet.html
Horses on drinking horns
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/drinking-horn-odin-with-sleipnir.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/horn-drinking-cup-epona.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-drinking-horn-epona.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/the-stallion-genuine-drinking-horn.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/horn-cup-odin-with-sleipnir.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/horn-drinking-mug-epona.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/horn-drinking-mug-sleipnir.html
Horses on belt fittings
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-buckle-midgard-snake.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-buckle-midgard-snake-bronze.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/ringerike-viking-belt-deluxe-black-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-belt-jellinge.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-leather-belt-170-cm.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/ringerike-viking-belt-deluxe.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-belt-ringerike-style.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/ringerike-viking-belt-deluxe-brown-silvered.html
Horses on jewelry
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/leather-viking-bracelet-with-dragons.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-turtle-brooch-birka-grave-860.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-sea-horse-pendant-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-bracelet-with-snake-motives.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-pendant-sleipnir-and-odin.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-turtle-brooch-birka-grave-860-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-earrings-with-horses-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-horse-pendant-bronze.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-sea-horse-silver.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/pendant-thors-hammer-with-horses.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-earrings-with-horses-bronze.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-sea-horse-pendant.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-bracteate-replica.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-epona-broche.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/bronze-viking-pendant-odin-on-sleipnir.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/godstad-horseman-amulet-bronze.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-horse-pendant-staraja-ladoga-bronze.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-horse-pendant-staraja-ladoga-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/animal-head-turtle-brooch-gotland-bronze.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/odin-and-sleipnir-pendant-from-gotland.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/bracteat-tjurko.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/bracteat-zealand.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-horse-fibula.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-horse-brooch-right.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-horse-brooch-left.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-valkyrie-brooch.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-horse-pendant-starya-ladoga.html
Horses on artifacts
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-comb-ringerike-style-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-loom.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/bronze-viking-comb-ringerike-style.html
Horses on coins
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-coin-cunobelin.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-coin-trinovantes.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-amorican-stater.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/athenian-drachma-with-pegasus.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/golden-stater-catuvellauni.html