Nowadays, Venus figurines are seen as symbols of the mother goddess. But what do they really mean? And who made them for the first time? This blog explores one of the most iconic symbols of the Stone Age: Venus figurines.
A Venus figurine is a portable statuette of a woman from the Late Paleolithic to the Neolithic period, spanning the late Early Stone Age to the New Stone Age. Most have been found in Europe, but figurines have also been discovered in Siberia and other parts of Eurasia. These figurines likely carried symbolic meaning and represent a form of spirituality that lasted as long as 29,000 years—a period 14.5 times longer than the era of Christianity.
Physical Characteristics
In total, more than 200 Venus figurines have been found, typically small, measuring between 3 to 40 cm in height. They are considered one of the earliest forms of prehistoric art.
They were made from soft stone (such as steatite, calcite, or limestone), bone or ivory, or clay that was fired. These clay figurines are among the oldest known ceramic objects.
Most Venus figurines lack arms and feet, and their legs taper to a point from wide hips. The heads are often small and featureless. Many figurines exaggerate the belly, hips, breasts, thighs, or vulva, often depicting a full or pregnant body. Some show detailed hairstyles, and occasionally clothing or tattoos are represented.
The Discovery of Venus
The first figurine was discovered in 1864 by Paul Hurault in Laugerie-Basse, in the Vézère Valley, southwestern France. The figurine, from the Magdalenian period (17,000–12,000 years ago), lacks a head, feet, and arms but has a clearly defined vulva. It was named Venus impudique (shameless Venus) in contrast to the ‘modest’ Venus of classical antiquity.
Four years later, Salomon Reinach published findings on a group of steatite figurines from the Balzi Rossi caves, and in 1908, the famous Venus of Willendorf was unearthed in Austria. Since then, hundreds of similar figurines have been discovered, ranging from the Pyrenees to Siberia.
In 2008, archaeologists from the University of Tübingen discovered the Venus of Hohle Fels, a 6-cm-tall figurine carved from mammoth ivory, which is at least 35,000 years old and represents the oldest known example of figurative art.
Venus Figurines in the Paleolithic: The Cro-Magnons
The Venus of Tan-Tan (500,000–300,000 years old) or the Venus of Berekhat Ram (280,000–250,000 years old) may be among the earliest Venus figurines. However, scholars are still debating whether these objects are truly Venus figurines.
The first figurines that can be definitively identified as Venus figurines were created by the Cro-Magnons or Early European Modern Humans (EEMH), Homo sapiens who migrated from West Asia to Europe around 56,800 years ago. They lived alongside and interbred with the indigenous Neanderthals, who went extinct 40,000–35,000 years ago. There were three main Cro-Magnon cultures: the Aurignacian (43,000–26,000 years ago), the Gravettian (33,000–22,000), which split into the Epigravettian in Italy and the Solutrean in the west, and the Magdalenian.
The first group of Cro-Magnons went extinct around 38,000 BCE due to a volcanic eruption that covered much of Europe in ash. About 1,000 years later, a second wave of Cro-Magnons migrated to Europe. This group formed a foundational population and became the basis for all later Cro-Magnon cultures. The Cro-Magnons developed an advanced culture while surviving the harsh climate of the European Ice Age.
Cro-Magnon Society
The Cro-Magnons developed various weapons, such as bows and spears, which they used to hunt mammoths and other game. They domesticated dogs, crafted musical instruments, used red ochre—possibly as cosmetics—and created jewelry. Groups also traded raw materials over long distances, which were sometimes used to make Venus figurines.
The discovery of Venus figurines initially led to the assumption that Cro-Magnon society was matriarchal. However, there is no evidence to support this. For example, most graves found are those of men and boys, sometimes accompanied by luxurious grave goods.
Relatively few Cro-Magnon graves have been discovered. This may indicate that not everyone was buried; some individuals may have been cremated or exposed to the elements.
Those who were buried were often accompanied by grave goods such as tools and jewelry. This suggests that the Cro-Magnons may have believed in an afterlife or resurrection. They were also buried with red ochre. Frequently, multiple individuals were buried in the same grave, often of both sexes.
Cro-Magnon society was generally relatively egalitarian. However, grave goods indicate that some individuals held higher status. For example, the grave of two children with luxurious grave goods suggests that high status may have been hereditary.
Some graves belonged to individuals who likely could not participate in hunting or heavy labor. Yet they were buried with rich grave goods, suggesting they may have held special roles, such as shamans or artisans.
Shamanism played a role in Cro-Magnon spirituality. In the Chauvet Cave (28,000 BCE), the Lascaux Cave (15,000 BCE), and the Grotte des Trois-Frères (12,000 BCE), hybrid figures—a cross between humans and animals—are depicted. These may represent shamanic trances, where the shaman symbolically transforms into an animal to undertake a spiritual journey.
It is plausible that shamans wore corresponding attire for such rituals, such as antler headdresses, which have been found at Mesolithic sites like Star Carr (9300–8400 BCE) and Badburg-Königshoven (7800–7600 BCE).
Additionally, evidence exists of (ritual) cannibalism and the creation of drinking vessels from human skulls. This might have supported these shamanic journeys or served another, as yet unknown, ritual purpose.
Venus Worship
It is likely that the Venus figurines of the Cro-Magnons served as amulets carried by individuals. Whether they were intended to invoke the assistance of higher powers or spirits, or simply represented an ideal to aspire to, remains uncertain. During the Ice Age, a period when famine was a constant threat, a rounded, full body symbolized prosperity, abundance, and survival. Therefore, Venus figurines can be seen as expressions of a desire for food security, fertility, and continuity.
Nowadays, Venus figurines are often interpreted as symbols of a mother goddess. However, it is unlikely that the Cro-Magnons believed in deities with human forms. Their spirituality was probably focused on spirits and natural forces that directly influenced their existence.
The life of the Cro-Magnons was harsh and uncertain. They depended on nature: hunting wild animals and gathering food. Nature itself was unpredictable and could both give and take. A successful hunt or bountiful harvest could mean the difference between survival and death, while harsh winters, droughts, or diseases were ever-present threats. Shamans may have attempted to communicate with the spirits of animals, ancestors, or natural forces through rituals, aiming for example, to ensure a successful hunt.
Around 3,000 years after the Magdalenian period, the relationship between humans and nature began to shift, as humans gained mastery over nature. This transition is evident at Göbekli Tepe, where hunter-gatherers settled around 9500 BCE. Here, wild grain grew, which they could harvest systematically, and they could hunt wild gazelles much of the time. This semi-permanent settlement marked a significant turning point.
At this time, we also see a shift in how humans were depicted in relation to nature. An example is a relief from Sayburç showing a man holding his penis, flanked by two leopards. Next to one of the leopards, another man is shown holding a snake aloft opposite a bull. The man with the phallus is rendered in detail, while the other figures are depicted in broad, simple lines.
While Cro-Magnons depicted hunting scenes that emphasized a struggle with nature, these types of representations show that humans had become dominant over nature. In the Paleolithic period, spirituality revolved around reverence for natural forces, but during the Stone Age, it increasingly focused on a connection with ancestors, potentially leading to the emergence of the first gods.
Van paleolithicum naar neolithicum
During the last Ice Age, which lasted until around 12,000 BCE, large parts of Europe were covered by glaciers and thus uninhabitable. It is estimated that only 5,000 to 130,000 people lived across the entire continent at the time. These Cro-Magnon populations concentrated in relatively small habitable areas, known as refugia, such as the Solutrean refugium in what is now Italy. After the Ice Age, these groups began to repopulate Europe. Today, they are referred to as Western Hunter-Gatherers.
Between 45,000 and 26,000 years ago, groups of Cro-Magnons migrated eastward from Europe, eventually reaching Anatolia via the Caucasus. Around 8200 BCE, this group adopted agriculture from the population of the Levant.
Around 7000 BCE, a group of these Anatolian farmers migrated, introducing agriculture to Europe and becoming known as the Early European Farmers. The arrival of agriculture marked the beginning of the Neolithic or New Stone Age in Europe.
Venus Figurines in the Neolithic and Copper Periods
During the Neolithic period, people's worldview began to shift from that of the Cro-Magnons, as seen at Göbekli Tepe. They, too, created figurines that could be described as Venus figurines, which likely held religious significance.
Çatalhöyük
Around 7500 BCE, people settled in Çatalhöyük, Turkey. Layers of settlements built on top of each other created a tell, or artificial mound. Çatalhöyük was a proto-city, a settlement as large as a city but lacking clear organization or centralized governance.
Various female figurines were found in Çatalhöyük. The original excavator, James Mellaart, viewed these figurines as evidence of a female deity and a matriarchal society. His successor, Ian Hodder, refuted this theory, showing that men and women had the same social status, as evidenced by how they were treated after death.
In 2004, Hodder unearthed a remarkable figurine. The front resembled a Venus figurine, with large breasts and a swollen (pregnant?) belly. However, the arms were very thin, and the back clearly showed the spine and possibly ribs. The front may symbolize prosperity, abundance, and life, while the back represents death. This tension between life and death is later reflected in the Indo-European mother goddess.
Another famous Venus figurine from Çatalhöyük is the Seated Woman. This clay figurine depicts a seated woman with large breasts, a swollen belly, and thick thighs, flanked by two leopards. Some researchers interpret this as a precursor to Cybele, the Phrygian mother goddess.
It remains unclear whether the Venus figurines from Çatalhöyük represented a goddess. They were often quickly produced and found in refuse pits or fill layers of abandoned houses, which would be unusual for depictions of deities. Venus figurines account for only 5% of the 2,000 figurines found in Çatalhöyük. There were also many phallic symbols in sculptures and murals, providing no evidence of a matriarchal society.
The Venus figurines may have reflected a connection between the inhabitants and their ancestors. This link was tangible, as ancestors were often buried beneath house floors. Families may have used these figurines to strengthen their bond with their ancestors, ensuring status, protection, and continuity.
Old Europe
The region of Southeastern Europe between 6000 and 3500 BCE is often referred to as "Old Europe." This area was home to various cultures with shared characteristics, such as the design of their houses and settlements and their methods of pottery-making. They built large settlements housing thousands of people and were likely among the first to use wheels. They could produce pottery with very thin walls, requiring the ability to fire clay at high temperatures. Their ability to generate intense heat also enabled them to smelt metal, marking the beginning of the Chalcolithic period.
A theory, popularized by Marija Gimbutas, built on Mellaart's work on Çatalhöyük, proposed that Old European society was peaceful, egalitarian, and centered around a mother goddess. This society was described as "matristic," focused on harmony, and was allegedly destroyed and conquered by patriarchal, warlike Proto-Indo-European steppe herders.
While influential, this theory is no longer widely accepted due to insufficient evidence. For instance, men were more frequently buried with rich grave goods than women. Moreover, Old European society was already declining before the Indo-European migration, accompanied by internal violence.
Old European cultures produced thousands of ceramic Venus figurines. Notable examples include the Vinča culture (5400–4500 BCE), the Varna culture (4550–4100 BCE), and the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture (5050–2950 BCE).
Some Venus figurines were placed in ceramic houses, others sat on chairs, while some stood upright. These figurines often had smaller breasts than those from the Early Stone Age, with wide hips and buttocks. Some featured stylized faces or wore masks, while late Cucuteni-Trypillia figurines had realistic facial features. Certain Vinča figurines even appeared to have bird-like faces.
Among the figurines from the Varna culture, nearly 90% depict women. Male figurines were also made and sometimes placed alongside female ones. However, nearly all prestige graves with rich grave goods were for men, suggesting that men oversaw external matters like trade and diplomacy, while women led domestic life and rituals. These women may have worshipped their ancestors, with veneration possibly passed down through mothers and grandmothers.
Such gender roles are not confirmed throughout Old Europe, as relatively few graves from the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture have been found.
Venus figurines have been found in various contexts, typically in domestic settings. They were buried in house foundations, possibly for protection, found broken in refuse pits, and discovered intact within homes. Some scientists suggest that the presence of multiple figurines in some houses indicates they were toys. However, the figurines show no signs of wear.
It is likely that some Venus figurines from Old Europe symbolized fertility. Although they often had flat bellies, these were frequently decorated with diamond shapes, possibly symbolizing pregnancy.
In the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture, Venus figurines were associated with grain. One group from Sabatinovka was found in a bakery, while at Luka Vrubavetskaya, the clay for figurines was mixed with grains and flour. These figurines may have been created to ensure the fertility of the land.
While the Venus figurines from Old Europe probably do not indicate the worship of a mother goddess, they likely served a ritual function, perhaps indicating ancestor veneration or symbolizing fertility.
Malta
The Mediterranean island of Malta was inhabited from around 5900 BCE. In the late Stone Age (3200–2500 BCE), the population built large temple complexes. Within these structures, over 30 female figurines have been found, ranging in size from 20 cm to as large as 3 meters. Carved from limestone, these figurines were likely covered with red ochre.
The figures are corpulent, with rolls of fat, wide hips, and large buttocks. There are both seated and standing Venus figurines. Some are clothed, while others are naked, possibly reflecting the different roles or functions of the figures. The vulva is not visible, often obscured by the seated position, clothing, or overlapping fat rolls. Given the similarities between the figurines, they may represent the same figure, possibly a goddess.
Cyprus
Around 3800 BCE, Cypriot culture flourished, partly due to the first use of local copper resources. At the same time, a unique Cypriot sculptural tradition emerged, producing human representations in pottery and stone.
Some later figures are recognizable as pregnant or birthing women. These likely symbolized fertility, pregnancy, and childbirth. They may have also held broader symbolic meaning related to the survival and continuity of the community.
Venus Figurines outside of Europe
Venus figurines were also created outside Europe, as portable depictions of female forms.
In Siberia, about 30 figurines from the Mal’ta–Buret’ culture have been discovered, dating to approximately 23,000 years ago. Stylistically different from those of the Cro-Magnons, these figurines are slimmer, with less pronounced breasts. About half of the Venus figurines from this culture are clothed.
In Mesopotamia, examples from the Hassuna culture (6000 BCE) and the Halaf culture (6100–5100 BCE) have been identified. These are interpreted by scholars as fertility symbols.
Around 4000 BCE, female figurines began to be produced in Mehrgarh in the Indus Valley. By 2600 BCE, male figurines began to appear, gradually replacing Venus figurines.
The Meaning of Venus Figurines
Over the millennia in which Venus figurines were created, humanity underwent profound changes, leading to shifts in the figurines' symbolism. Hunter-gatherers lived in diverse conditions: some groups were nomadic, moving weekly, while others were semi-nomadic, establishing temporary settlements, such as in Çatalhöyük. Additionally, there were communities like those at Göbekli Tepe, where permanent food sources were available.
Venus figurines were produced in large numbers by both hunter-gatherers and agricultural communities, though their meaning evolved over time. Early creators likely did not personify their gods but instead used the figurines to reflect personal ideals and desired states of prosperity. In later periods, Venus figurines appear to have been more closely associated with ancestor worship.
In both cases, the figurines emphasized concepts like fertility, abundance, and continuity. They symbolized both the fertility of the land and that of humanity. However, there is no evidence that Venus figurines referenced a mother goddess or a matriarchal or matristic society. By the end of the Neolithic period, the tradition of creating Venus figurines largely disappeared, although the underlying symbolism endured.
The Proto-Indo-European Mother Goddess
Around 3000 BCE, descendants of Eastern Hunter-Gatherers, distant relatives of the Cro-Magnons, migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppes into Europe. These were the ancestors of the Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts, and other Indo-European cultures. Much is known about their religion and mythology, which was not developed in isolation.
The Earth Mother (Dʰéǵʰōm Méh₂tēr) is depicted as the vast (pl̥th₂éwih₂) and dark (dʰengwo-) home of mortals, the entity that carries all life. She is often paired with the Sky Father (Dyḗus ph₂tḗr), representing contrast and union. The fertile rain of the Sky Father and the fertility of the Earth Mother bring prosperity and abundance to the community. Dʰéǵʰōm is thus associated with fertility, growth, and death, seen as both the origin and the ultimate resting place of humanity.
Within this framework, the fertility goddesses of Indo-European mythology can be viewed as a direct continuation of the Venus symbolism depicted over 29,000 years. The archetype of the Earth Mother, as a source of life, fertility, and continuity, reflects the essence of this ancient symbolism and connects the prehistoric Venus figurines to later mythological and spiritual traditions.
Venus Figurines
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/mother-earth-amulet-willendorf.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/mother-earth-amulet-willendorf-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/pendant-venus-of-willendorf.html
Objects Depicting Venus Figurines
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/medieval-goddess-handcrafted-genuine-leather-journ.html
Indo-European Venus Figurines
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-amulet-freya-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-votive-statue-goddess-fortuna.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-votive-statue-goddess-juno.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-votive-statue-goddess-minerva.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-house-altar-venus.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-votive-statue-goddess-venus.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/matrona-statue.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/matrona-statue.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-votive-statue-sitting-fortuna.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-votive-statue-sirona.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/roman-matres-2nd-century.html