The Tree of Life is an important symbol found in numerous mythological, religious, and philosophical traditions around the world. It often symbolizes the connection between heaven, earth, and the underworld, as exemplified by the Yggdrasil in Norse mythology. While the Tree of Life plays a central role in Indo-European paganism, the symbol is also present in non-Indo-European cultures, such as those of the Native American peoples and ancient Mesopotamia.
There is much debate over the origins of the Tree of Life concept, with some scholars arguing that the symbol arose independently in different cultures, while others argue that there is a cross-cultural influence. Various representations of the Tree of Life appear in folklore and different cultures, often associating it with themes of immortality and fertility. It is unlikely that the Tree of Life is an expression of an overarching global religion.
In this blog, we will explore various Indo-European mythological traditions that relate to the Tree of Life.
The origin of the tree of life
Because the tree of life is so old and widespread, it is unlikely that it had an Indo-European origin. But what is the source of this symbol?
The origin of the tree of life may have been in the Ural Mountains. Around 3000 BC, Proto-Uralic was spoken here (the mother tongue of modern Hungarian and Finnish, among others). A group of Indo-European speakers moved through the Ural Mountains to Persia and India. When a group of Proto-Uralic-speaking people moved north and into Scandinavia, they brought the tree of life with them to Europe. In that case, the Greek concept of the tree of life would have been influenced by ideas from the Near East and contact between the Proto-Uralics and the hunter-gatherers in Northern Asia ensured its spread throughout Asia.
Another theory, put forward by Hilda Ellis Davidson, among others, is that the tree of life originated in Northern Eurasia. Both Native Americans, speakers of Proto-Uralic, Proto-Indo-European steppe herders and speakers of later Indo-Aryan had (indirect) contact with the peoples of Siberia.
Indeed, there are similarities with the Scandinavian Yggdrasil and shamanistic traditions from Northern Eurasia. Davidson suggests that this concept is based on a very old idea, possibly influenced by the North Star, which was seen as the center of the sky. In Siberian shamanistic traditions, a central tree often functions as a means to reach the sky. She also points out the similarities between the image of an eagle on top of Yggdrasil and a snake winding around the roots of the tree. These elements seem to show similarities with cosmological images from Asia.
Indo-European cosmic order
The cosmic order is the natural order of things in the universe. In various traditions, it is guarded by figures such as the Norse Norns, the Celtic Matres, and the Greek Moirai. In the Vedic tradition, this order is known as Rta, from the Proto-Indo-European word *h₂r-tós (Xartus), and in Greek it is referred to as Kosmos.
Rta represents a dynamic cosmos in which both physical elements, such as the heavenly bodies, and abstract concepts, such as moral development, are in constant motion (gati). All parts of the universe work together harmoniously within this cosmic order (samghatna). Thanks to the power of Rta, both nature and social structures function in equilibrium.
The course of events is determined by the inevitable laws of cause and effect. People find their true fulfillment by acting in accordance with the laws of Rta. Disregarding them causes chaos and suffering. The rules that support Rta are summarized as dharma, derived from the Proto-Indo-European *dʰer- (‘to support, hold’). The Greeks called this Logos and based their philosophy and science on this fundamental logic.
Dharma comprises the principles and rules that support the Rta. Failure to adhere to these laws results in adharma, which disrupts the natural balance and leads to misery and misfortune.
The Greek word cosmos literally means “order” or “ordered world,” and was contrasted with chaos, which refers to disorder or the primordial state without structure.
The Tree of Life in Indo-European Mythologies
The Vedic Aśvattha
The name Aśvattha comes from Sanskrit and is composed of two words: "śva" (श्व) from a word meaning "tomorrow" or "future", and "stha" (स्थ) meaning "to stand" or "to remain standing". Together, Aśvattha can be translated as “that which remains standing tomorrow” or more freely, “that which remains stable in the future.” An alternative interpretation is a compound of "aśva" (अश्व, "horse") and "stha", "where a horse stands."
The roots of the Aśvattha point to the sky, and its branches hang down. In this context, the tree represents the entire universe, with its roots anchored in the divine and its branches extending out into the world. This symbolism points to the connection between the transcendental and the earthly.
In the Katha Upanishad, Yama explains that the tree represents the pure, immortal Brahman, the universal source of all reality. The tree acts as a metaphor for the cycle of life, symbolizing the souls that pass through birth and death in a continuous cycle.
In later Hindu scriptures, the Aśvattha takes on a different meaning. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains that the Aśvattha tree has no beginning or end. Its branches, nourished by the gunas (natural qualities), spread out as the actions of people. In this text it is a symbol for the illusions of the material world. In a spiritual sense, the tree is a metaphor for the way in which people become entangled in the temporary, fleeting aspects of existence. The text encourages cutting off this attachment, in order to become one with the divine.
The Aśvattha also plays a major role in contemporary Hinduism. The ficus religiosa is planted at temples and holy places and dried leaves and bark of the tree are used in rituals, such as Agnihotra sacrificial fireworks.
The Persian Gaokerena
The Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrianism that preserves many elements of the ancient Persian religion, mentions several sacred plants and trees associated with life, immortality and healing.
The Avesta describes the haoma, from which an important ritual drink is made. The Persians believed that the haoma was medicinal and promoted fertility. It was mildly hallucinogenic, with no harmful side effects. The Avestan drink made from haoma is related to the Sanskrit soma, a ritual drink in the Vedic religion, suggesting a shared religious feature of the Indo-Iranian traditions that preceded Zoroastrianism.
The mythological haoma plant Gaokerena had medicinal properties and the ability to grant immortality. The name Gaokerena comes from the Avestan “gao” (from Proto-Indo-European *gʷou̯-), “cow” and “kerena,” which may be traced back to the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱer-" or "ḱerh₃-," meaning “to grow” or “to arise.” Alternatively, it can be interpreted as “ox horn.”
The primeval cow Gavaevodata, created by the supreme god Ahura Mazda, was killed by the evil spirit Ahriman. From his body grew the Gaokerena in the primeval sea Vourukasha. Ahura Mazda breathed his breath of life into the tree, from which Mashya and Mashyaana, the first two humans, were born.
The Middle Persian text of the Bundahishn relates that the mythological bird of prey Simurgh (from Old Persian Saena) lived in the Gaokerena. When he flew away from the tree, its branches, through which the seeds of the tree spread over the world and gave life to all plants and trees. Ahriman sent evil animals, frogs, salamanders and snakes to poison the tree. This is probably a later development in Zoroastrianism and it is not clear whether this story has its origins in the old Persian religion. In contrast, a bird of prey (an eagle) also lives in the Norse Yggdrasil, and the dragon Níðhöggr tries to undermine the tree.
Mashya and Mashyana, the first humans, show a parallel with Ask and Embla from Norse mythology. Both are the first humans, created to populate the earth and continue creation. Both pairs come from nature – Mashya and Mashyana from a plant or tree, and Ask and Embla from tree trunks – and received the breath of life from divine beings (Ahura Mazda and the Amesha Spenta in the former, and Odin, Vili and Vé in the latter). In both stories, these pairs symbolize the beginnings of humanity and their connection to nature and divine creation.
The Germanic Irminsul
The Old Saxon word Irminsûl, meaning "great pillar," has an important place in Germanic mythology. The first part, Irmin-, means "great" and is found in several Germanic traditions. Irmin can be translated into Old Norse as Jörmunr, like Yggr one of Odin's epithets.
The Saxons believed that Irminsul was a cosmic pillar that supported the heavens, and he was sometimes also considered a symbol of their tribal identity and pagan beliefs. It was a specific sanctuary and had a distinct cultic function. It was probably venerated with sacrifices and rituals as a symbol of tribal and religious unity.
Charlemagne destroyed an Irminsul sanctuary in 772 during a campaign against the Saxons. It is not clear whether this was the only Irminsul, or whether each area had its own Irminsul.
The Scandinavian Yggdrasil
Yggdrasil is the immense ash tree that plays a central role in Norse cosmology. The tree symbolizes the universe and connects the Nine Worlds, each with its own unique properties and inhabitants.
The name literally means “horse of Yggr”, with Yggr being one of the epithets of Odin, “the fearsome”. This refers to the Poetic Edda, in which Odin sacrifices himself by hanging from a tree. From this comes the symbolism of Yggdrasil as Odin’s gallows.
The most important descriptions of Yggdrasil come from the 13th century Poetic Edda and Prose Edda, where it is described as a giant ash tree, sacred to the gods, and a crucial place for their councils. This shows the tree not only as a cosmic center, but also as a political and social center of the world of the gods.
Yggdrasil’s branches stretch high into the heavens, while its roots extend to three different locations: the well Urðarbrunnr in Asgard, Hvergelmir in Niflheim, and Mímisbrunnr, the well of wisdom in Jotunheim.
Yggdrasil is inhabited by mythical creatures such as the dragon Níðhöggr who gnaws at the roots of the tree, the eagle Veðrfölnir, the squirrel Ratatoskr, and the four stags Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Duraþrór.
The Greek Garden of the Hesperides
In the mythologies described above, the Tree of Life is associated with fertility and life. Interestingly, Greek mythology assigned a very different role to a sacred tree.
The goddess Hera receives a branch of golden apples from her grandmother Gaia (Earth), which she plants in her Garden of the Hesperides. These trees are guarded by the dragon Ladon, who scares off intruders.
A well-known story about these golden apples involves Aphrodite, who gives apples to Hippomenes to distract Atalanta during a footrace so that he can win her hand. Although the origin of these apples is not explicitly stated in the myth, it is often assumed that Aphrodite picked them from Hera's tree.
Later, Eris steals one of the apples and engraves the words ΤΗΙ ΚΑΛΛΙΣΤΗΙ ("to the most beautiful") on it, leading to the creation of the Apple of Strife and the Trojan War. Heracles must then retrieve three of the golden apples as part of his Twelve Labors.
The Garden of the Hesperides is often compared to the Biblical Eden, with the golden apples being seen as parallels to the forbidden fruit of the tree in Genesis. In addition, Ladon is often compared to the serpent from the story of Eden. These associations are a major reason why the forbidden fruit is often depicted as an apple in European art, even though the Bible does not mention any specific characteristics of the fruit.
Celtic Sacred Trees
Unlike the mythology of many other Indo-European peoples, Celtic mythologies did not have an individual sacred tree, but trees were certainly considered sacred.
There were five sacred trees in Ireland: the Éo Rossa (a yew tree), Bile Dathi (an ash tree), the Éo Mugna (an oak tree), the Cráeb Uisnig (an ash tree), the Cráeb Uisnig (an ash tree) and the Bile Tortan (an ash tree). The letters of the ogham alphabet were already explained in the Middle Ages with tree names, an important source for this are the lists of the bríatharogaim (‘word oghams’).
The Old Irish law texts distinguish between different types of trees, the Airig Fedo (‘nobles of the forest’), Aithig Fedo (‘citizens of the forest’), Fodla Fedo (‘camps of the forest’) and Losa Fedo (‘shrubs of the forest’). The Airig Fedo were the oak, hazel, holly, yew, ash, Scots pine and crab apple.
The oak was noble for its acorns and the planks that could be made from its wood. It is prominent in other Celtic traditions and is described in historical texts, such as those of Strabo and Pliny the Elder, as a sacred tree connected with Druidic ritual. The oak was the ogham letter D, “dair,” also interpreted as “tallest tree,” “craftsman’s handiwork,” and “most worked as a craft.”
The hazel was noble for its hazelnuts and the staves that were made from its wood for building fences and enclosures. It was a symbol of wisdom. The hazel was the ogham letter C, “coll,” also interpreted as “most beautiful tree,” “friend of nuts,” and “sweetest tree.”
The holly was noble because the Irish made chariot shafts and spears from its wood. It was used as winter food for livestock. The holly may have been the ogham letter T, “tinne,” ‘one of the three parts of a wheel’, ‘one of the three parts of a weapon’.
The yew was noble because people made all sorts of objects from its wood. The yew was the ogham letter I, “idad”, ‘oldest tree’, ‘most beautiful of the old’, ‘energy of a sick person’.
The ash was noble because people made all sorts of objects from its wood. The maple was the ogham letter O, Onn, ‘wonderer of horses’, ‘smoothest of crafts’, ‘(tools) of war bands’.
The Scots pine was noble because of its resin. The tree was possibly the ogham letter A, Ailm, ‘loudest groan’, ‘beginning of an answer’, ‘beginning of a cry’.
The apple tree was noble because of its fruit and bark (possibly for dyes). The apple tree symbolises fertility and immortality in Celtic legends and is associated with mythological figures such as Cú Roí and Connla. The tree may have been the ogham letter Q, Cert, which has been interpreted as ‘hiding place of a madman(?)’, ‘food of an unimportant person’ and ‘dregs for (dyeing?) clothes’.
Important trees are also mentioned in Middle Welsh literature. In the poem Cad Goddeu (the battle of the trees) the magician Gwydion brings trees to life to fight as his army. It would be interesting to compare the trees mentioned here with the bríatharogaim. In addition, the alder was a way to recognise the mythological figure Bran (Bendigeidfran).
The Tree of Life as a bridge to the Otherworld
The Norwegian maple Yggdrasil connects the nine different worlds of the cosmos.
Ásgarðr, Home of the Æsir gods such as Odin and Thor, high in the cosmos.
Vanaheimr, Realm of the Vanir gods, associated with fertility and nature.
Miðgarðr, World of men, connected to Ásgarðr by the Bifröst bridge.
Jötunheimr, Home of the giants, often in conflict with the gods.
Niflheimr, Cold, misty world of death and cold, where Níðhöggr gnaws the roots of Yggdrasil.
Múspellsheimr, Fire world of the fire giants, important at Ragnarök.
Álfheimr, Realm of the light elves, connected with nature and magic.
Svartálfaheimr/Niðavellir, Underground world of the dwarves, masters of smithing.
Helheimr, Realm of the Dead, ruled by the goddess Hel, connected to Niflheim.
The tree is fed by three springs, Urðarbrunnr in Asgard, Hvergelmir in Niflheim, and Mímisbrunnr, in Jotunheim.
In Irish mythology, there are nine hazel trees at Connla's well. The salmon that lived in the well ate the hazelnuts, through which the salmon gained all the knowledge and wisdom of the world; whoever ate the salmon gained this knowledge as well. The water of this well was a passage to the Otherworld.
The Otherworld or Tír na nÓg was a place of eternal youth, beauty, health and abundance. As such, it is comparable to the Vedic Śvetadvīpam ('White Isle'), the Greek Hyperborea and the Scandinavian Ódáinsakr in Jötunheimr.
The Tree of Life, Sacrifices and Cosmic Order
The Tree of Life, as a connection between the different worlds in the cosmos, was the symbol for stability and cosmic order. Sacrifices of both cattle and horses were essential to maintain cosmic order.
One of the translations of the Vedic Aśvattha is ‘where a horse stands’. The name of the Persian tree of life Gaokerena is translated as ‘ox horn’. Yggdrasil is translated as ‘Odin’s horse’ and in Old Irish the maple is also associated with horses. This association with horses and cattle is striking. Since the Proto-Indo-European culture was nomadic, the Tree of Life was probably adopted as a symbol for stability and imperishability.
The sacrifice of horses was connected with kingship and fertility. The Vedic culture knew the Ashvamedha sacrifice, a royal ritual in which the horse confirmed the king’s rule and was supposed to promote the prosperity of the country. The Romans sacrificed a horse to the god Mars in October and used the blood from its tail (or penis) to sprinkle the hearth of the Vestal Virgins, symbolizing the eternal protection and vitality of the city and the Roman Empire. Horses were also sacrificed and their meat eaten in Ireland and among the Vikings.
The sacrifice of cattle was less closely linked to fertility and sovereignty and therefore possibly more widespread. This goes back to the Proto-Indo-European myth of Trito, the first warrior, who frees the stolen cattle and eventually sacrifices them to the gods to ensure the cosmic cycle of mutual obligations between humans and gods.
Conclusion
We have tried to provide an overview of the possible symbolic meaning of the Proto-Indo-European tree of life. The tree probably represents the immortal soul (*bʰerǵʰ-:). The branches and roots symbolize the cosmos (Xartus). The gods serve the cosmos. The tree feeds itself from chaos (*ǵʰeh₂n-,) and transforms it into structure and beauty, the visualization of the cosmos. The branches of the tree of life are connected to each other. In this way, everything is connected to each other. The actions of all living beings influence how the branches bend and how the cosmos changes. Based on this philosophy, all actions have consequences, good or bad. This is where the Vedic principle of Karma originated, comparable to the Old Norse Hamingja.
Outside the tree, chaos reigns. Eventually, we too fall into the chaos and are eventually sucked back into the cosmos when the tree of life absorbs its nourishment through its roots. The roots of the tree of life are connected to the other worlds.
Articles on which the tree of life is pictured:
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/drinking-horn-yggdrasil.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/woodcarving-tree-of-life-with-celtic-knots.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/horn-drinking-cup-yggdrasil.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/horn-cup-yggdrasil.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-drinking-horn-with-yggdrasil.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/tree-of-life-genuine-leather-journal-with-antique.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/leather-journal-yggdrasil.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/leather-journal-tree-of-life.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-tree-of-life-vintage-genuine-leather-journa.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-ring-tree-of-life.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/tree-of-life-pendant.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/tree-of-life-pendant-with-sun-and-moon.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/knotted-tree-of-life-bronze.html