Spiral motifs are among the oldest symbols integrated into human art. They were used in Europe as early as the late Ice Age and remained popular into the early Middle Ages. Even today, these motifs are widely appreciated. But what is the meaning behind these patterns? In this blog, we explore the fascinating history of European spiral motifs.
Geometric motifs, such as spirals, are found in prehistoric art across the globe. While their precise meaning often remains a mystery, evidence suggests these patterns have both universal and cultural origins. They might stem from deeply rooted neurological processes or symbolize spiritual or practical ideas that varied across civilizations.
Ice Age and Mesolithic Spiral Motifs
The exact moment humans began creating spiral motifs is unclear, but they appear in many parts of the world. Examples from Mal’ta, Siberia, date back 18,000 years and were crafted during the late Ice Age. The Serpent Mound burial site in Ohio, USA, over 2,000 years old, also ends in a spiral.
Various theories exist about the origins of these patterns. Some suggest spiral motifs arise from standard neurological reactions in the brain, later translated into art. Other theories propose shamans saw these patterns during hallucinations induced by trance, drugs, or visual cortex stimulation. These universal inner visions may have inspired prehistoric artists.
Another hypothesis is that spiral motifs, like symbols such as the swastika, the sun cross, and the tree of life, spread from Siberia during the Ice Age as populations migrated, eventually giving rise to Native American cultures. However, this theory does not explain the presence of spiral motifs in Polynesia and Africa.
An alternative possibility is that spiral motifs have a much older origin, perhaps as early as 70,000 years ago, when humans began migrating out of Africa. Proving this theory remains challenging.
The Absence of Spirals in Paleolithic Art
Interestingly, spirals are almost absent in European Late Paleolithic art (40,000–12,000 BCE), despite their prominence in later periods. Paleolithic art tended to be more figurative than abstract.
This raises intriguing questions about early artists’ sources of inspiration. Were altered states of consciousness, often associated with shamanistic visions, not yet common? Or were cultural and artistic preferences simply different at the time?
Spiral Motifs in the Neolithic Era
Spirals became popular geometric motifs during the Late Neolithic, particularly along the Atlantic coast in regions like Spain, Portugal, Brittany, and Ireland. Around 3000 BCE, Neolithic farmers brought this tradition, along with monumental architecture, from Brittany to the British Isles.
Neolithic religion centered on the fertility of the land and the sun’s role in providing it. This belief system revolved around the cyclical change of seasons: the harvest was followed by the season of death, and during the winter solstice, the sun’s renewed strength signaled the return of fertility.
Spirals, appearing in both left- and right-handed forms, likely held symbolic meaning. They may have represented the sun, sunlight, or seasonal cycles. Other theories suggest spirals symbolized a gateway to the spiritual world or the cycle of life and death. Additionally, they could have been used as tools to measure time, such as seasons and solstices. Many Neolithic monuments, like stone circles and burial mounds, are precisely aligned with the sun’s position during solstices and equinoxes.
A striking example is Brú na Bóinne and Newgrange in Ireland, where sunlight enters the monument precisely during the winter solstice. Stonehenge in southern England is similarly aligned with the solstice.
The spirals on the kerbstones of such monuments are partially seen as calendar systems, tracking lunar and solar cycles.
Spiral Motifs in the Bronze Age
Between 3000 and 2500 BCE, Proto-Indo-European steppe herders migrated from the Pontic steppes into Europe. Their society was based on animal husbandry, and they moved their herds across grazing lands. These herders practiced a dharmicnature religion. The fusion of Proto-Indo-European and Neolithic farmer cultures remains a mystery but likely involved a combination of marriage, assimilation, and conflict. In some regions, steppe herders replaced up to 90% of Neolithic DNA.
Proto-Indo-Europeans were physically larger than Neolithic farmers, rode horses, and experimented with bronze weapons like axes. Their culture was characterized by a strong hierarchical structure and an oath-bound warrior culture. Despite instances of conflict, they also adopted Neolithic traditions and rituals, including the veneration of agricultural goddesses. The Old Norse pantheon of Vanir gods, such as Freyr, Freya, and Njord, with their focus on fertility, agriculture, and abundance, may have Neolithic origins. Similar associations are found with deities like Cybele and the Greek goddess Demeter.
Proto-Indo-European men and Neolithic women had children, leading to the emergence of new cultures, such as the Corded Ware culture. They likely adopted Neolithic spiral motifs and their associated symbolism, integrating them into their own religious and cultural traditions. These motifs, embodying fertility, cycles, and nature, became a shared heritage in Bronze Age Europe.
Between approximately 3000–2500 BCE, these motifs continued to evolve as the Proto-Indo-European herders spread across the continent.
We do not know exactly how the steppe herders and Neolithic farmers merged. It was likely a combination of intermarriage, cultural assimilation, and warfare. In some areas, the steppe herders replaced up to 90% of the Neolithic DNA.
The society of the steppe herders was hierarchical, oath-bound, and focused on individual acts of war. However, they did not only wage war with their new neighbors. They also adopted traditions and rituals from them, such as the worship of agricultural and fertility goddesses. It is possible that the Old Norse Vanir gods originated from Neolithic deities. The Vanir gods Freyr, Freya, and Njörd are directly associated with fertility, agriculture, and abundance. Similarly, goddesses like Cybele and Demeter may have had a local Neolithic origin.
The steppe herders likely also adopted Neolithic spiral motifs, including the triskelion.
Indo-European Sun Worship
In Indo-European mythology, the sun is often depicted as a radiant wheel, drawn by a horse and resting in a chariot. An example of this is the Trundholm Sun Chariot from 1500–1300 BCE. Fragments of a similar sun chariot were found in a burial mound in Jægersborg Hegn, Denmark.
The sun is also represented as a sun cross or sun disk. These symbols are often engraved with spiral motifs, possibly stylized sun rays.
In Indo-European religion, cosmic order was central. The sun played an essential role as a marker of the seasons, the transition between day and night, and the cycle of life and death. Consequently, the sun became a symbol of order, fertility, and life, while darkness symbolized chaos and death. Light, with the sun as its primary source, was seen as the embodiment of cosmic harmony and vitality.
Several Proto-Indo-European deities were associated with the sun and other celestial bodies:
- *Seh₂ul (Old Norse Sól): the god or goddess of the sun, bringing life and maintaining order.
- *Meh₁not (Old Norse Máni): the god of the moon, associated with the cycles of time and the rhythms of nature.
- *H₂éwsōs (West Germanic Eostre): the goddess of dawn, symbolizing the morning light and the beginning of a new day.
These mythological representations underscore the importance of the sun and other celestial bodies in the Indo-European worldview. The use of spiral motifs on sun disks highlights the symbolic connection between the sun, light, and the cyclical nature of time and life.
Spiral Motifs in Classical Antiquity
During the Late Bronze Age, spiral motifs remained popular and played a significant role in the art of the period. The late Bronze Age cultures eventually evolved into the Hallstatt A and B cultures, considered the first expressions of what would later become Celtic culture.
The art of the Celtic Hallstatt period (800–500 BCE) is characterized by precise geometric patterns, often incorporating spiral motifs, as seen on fibulae (cloak pins). Other civilizations, such as the Greeks and Etruscans, also used spiral motifs in their fibulae and pottery.
By the 5th century BCE, a new Celtic art style emerged: the La Tène style. Influenced by Greek, Etruscan, and Scythian art, it developed a unique character. In La Tène art, abstract patterns are often interwoven with leaf motifs, lotus leaves, and spiral designs, giving the style its distinctive appearance.
Although the exact meaning of many symbols from La Tène art remains debated, it is clear that they held deep symbolic value for the Celts. Spiral motifs, often in abstract or intertwined forms, appeared on various objects such as weapons, jewelry, and shields.
A notable example is a 5th-century BCE relief from Bormio, Italy, depicting a Celtic warrior. His shield features spiral motifs, possibly inspired by Etruscan art.
Later examples of La Tène spiral motifs include a sword scabbard from Wisbech, dated to the 3rd century BCE, and a shield from the 2nd–3rd century BCE, found in the River Witham in Lincolnshire.
The La Tène style introduced a more abstract approach to spiral motifs, often intricately interwoven with other decorative elements like stylized leaves and organic patterns. This refined style reflects an advanced artistic tradition, combining ancient symbolism with new forms of expression.
Early Medieval Spirals
During the Migration Period, spiral motifs were once again widely used in various artistic styles, often in a more stylized form than in Celtic La Tène art. These motifs featured prominently in Germanic art styles, including Anglo-Saxon art. Their exact meaning remains uncertain.
Art as an Expression of Oral Tradition
Germanic and Celtic peoples made little use of writing—not because they were illiterate, but because their knowledge and stories were primarily transmitted orally.
These art forms were often exclusive to aristocratic, scholarly, and warrior classes, who memorized and passed on mythological tales and meanings.
In Germanic art, spiral motifs were frequently combined with depictions of wild animals, mythical creatures like dragons, and occasionally human figures or gods, suggesting symbolic or mythological significance.
Spiral Motifs and the Influence of Christianity
Around the 5th century CE, Christianity was introduced to Celtic Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England. Christian symbolism was integrated into traditional knotwork designs.
Despite this religious transition, spiral motifs remained popular, as seen in the decorations of the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells, where spiral motifs are often combined with knots, animals, and other decorative patterns.
Transition to Viking Art
The artistic styles of the Vikings later evolved from Germanic art traditions. While the Vikings also employed spiral motifs, these were often more stylized and significantly different from the spiral motifs of earlier periods.
The Viking style emphasized dynamic and intricate designs, with spirals integrated into patterns featuring animals and mythological themes, yet with a distinctly unique aesthetic approach.
The enduring popularity of spiral motifs across various cultures and periods underscores their lasting symbolic and artistic value, which was continuously reinterpreted within the context of evolving traditions and religions.
6th-Century Spiral Motifs on Gotland
On the Swedish island of Gotland, remarkable Germanic stones dating back to the 6th century CE can be found. These stones feature spiral motifs, often combined with depictions of ibexes, horses, and sometimes dancing figures. In some cases, the horses are depicted fighting, possibly referencing the semi-ritual sport Hestavíg, in which the strongest stallions were selected for breeding.
The stones are clearly associated with the solar cult, where the spiral motifs symbolize the power of the sun. The horse played a significant role as a status symbol, but also as a symbol of fertility and the land. The fertility of horses was believed to depend on sunlight, peaking during the summer solstice when the sun's strength was at its height.
The ibex, which mates between October and January, is often depicted on these stones. The loud battles between male ibexes, clashing their horns, marked the breeding season and symbolized fertility and the winter solstice. In this context, the ibex represents fertility and the darkness of winter giving way to the light of the coming summer.
Conclusion
There is insufficient evidence to definitively determine the meaning of spiral motifs or whether they carried the same symbolism across different cultures. These motifs may have originated in the shamanistic Mesolithic period, the Ice Age, or even earlier. It remains unclear whether spiral motifs developed independently or were influenced by one another. In art history, it is often assumed that artistic expressions are rarely unique, suggesting that these motifs were likely (in)directly influenced by each other.
From the Neolithic period to the early Middle Ages, spiral motifs were often associated with sun worship. In some cases, artists likely used spiral motifs to reference the sun, but there are also instances where the spiral had other meanings or was simply used to fill empty space.
The introduction of agriculture in the Neolithic period was, in essence, more of a large-scale experiment than a sudden transformation. Agriculture brought uncertainty; climate changes and droughts caused crop failures and famine. The sun, fertile land, and rain were vital to the Neolithic population, and these natural forces became central to their religious rituals.
For the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders, sun worship was not a new concept; they already had their own solar cult. However, their priorities differed from those of the Neolithic farmers, leading to shifts in worldviews, influenced in part by marriages between Neolithic women and Indo-European steppe herders. From this period, and certainly up to the end of the Hallstatt period, a clear association between spiral motifs and sun worship can be identified in some cases.
In the La Tène period and the early Middle Ages, this association is harder to trace. However, the 6th-century stones on Gotland strongly link spiral motifs to sun worship, suggesting that Neolithic and Indo-European solar worship persisted in an assimilated form, adapted to the specific Germanic, Celtic, or Slavic cultural contexts of the time.
Drinking horns with spiral motifs
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Leather booklets with spiral designs
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