From Pegasus to Epona and Sleipnir: Horses are widely revered and deified in Indo-European cultures. In this blog, we explore various examples of Indo-European horse worship.
This story is inseparably linked to the domestication of the horse. Although it is not certain when this took place, it was likely around 4800 BCE.
The Proto-Indo-European peoples who lived on the Pontic-Caspian steppe probably originally kept horses for winter food. Later, they learned how to ride horses and used them for pulling carts. From that moment, the
Around 3000 BCE, the Proto-Indo-Europeans migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe into Europe. In doing so, they laid the foundation for cultures such as the Vikings, Romans, Greeks, and Celts.
Riding horses was a revolutionary development. This gave the horse its role in mythologies and pagan religions.
Trigger warning
In some cultures, horse worship was associated with zoophilia. It is possible that no actual intercourse with the horse took place, but that this was a symbolic reference. Additionally, this blog discusses the practice of horse sacrifice.
We aim to present as representative a picture of horse worship as possible, and therefore must mention these aspects. We strongly distance ourselves from any form of animal cruelty.
Proto-Indo-European Horse Sacrifices
The Samara culture (around 5000 BCE) was a culture located at the northern edge of the steppe zone, from which the speakers of Proto-Indo-European later migrated. There is no evidence that they rode horses, but many artifacts depicting horses have been found in their graves. Additionally, people were buried with horses, often only their heads and feet. It is uncertain whether these horses were already domesticated, but they were certainly used for their meat. Horses, like cattle and sheep, were given as grave goods.
Between 4200 and 4000 BCE, new burial traditions emerged among the Suvorovo culture around the Danube Delta. They buried their dead with polished stone clubs in the shape of horse heads and beads made from horse teeth. Excavations at Sredni Stog II and Dereivka on the Dnieper River revealed that a significant portion of the animal bones found belonged to horses, suggesting that horses were at least domesticated and possibly ridden. Their symbolic and practical value thus grew.
Horses became central sacrificial animals in Proto-Indo-European religion. Royal rituals often revolved around large horse sacrifices, such as the sacrifice of a white horse symbolizing the sun. This solar ritual connected the king to the fertility of the land, with the king being seen as the embodiment of the land.
According to religious scholar Mircea Eliade, horse sacrifice originally had a cosmic significance, with the horse being associated with the sky god Dyḗus ph₂tḗr and the cosmos. The sacrifice symbolized a ritual rebirth and renewal of the world.
In the Maykop culture (3700–300 BCE) and the Yamnaya culture (3300–2600 BCE), leaders were sometimes buried with wagons. This was also a status symbol; with the invention of the wheel, people could build wagons and become more mobile. This allowed them to herd their livestock more easily. Like the horse, the wagon was a symbol of the sun.
Vedic Horse Worship
The tradition of burying powerful individuals with horses and/or wagons was continued by many other Indo-European cultures, including the Celts, as well as by the Sintashta culture (2200–1900 BCE) in the southern Ural region. In Sintashta graves, such as Sintashta Mogila, large numbers of horses were sacrificed. This culture may have played a key role in the development of the war chariot, with the oldest known examples found in Sintashta graves around 2000 BCE. Like the horse, the war chariot was a symbol of the sun.
The people of the Sintashta culture likely spoke Proto-Indo-Iranian, a branch of the Indo-European language family. Their ancestors had migrated with the steppe herders into Europe and then, as an offshoot of the Corded Ware culture, moved eastward.
From the Ural Mountains, their descendants moved further south, eventually settling in Persia and India. This led to the emergence of Vedic civilization in India, with Vedic religion forming the foundation of modern Hinduism.
The Ashvamedha was a ritual in Vedic India, intended to emphasize the sovereign power of a king and achieve spiritual purification. The ritual, which began in spring, aimed to invoke fertility and prosperity. At its center was a white stallion, the so-called “solar horse”, which symbolized strength and cosmic order.
The horse was given a year of freedom to roam, accompanied by royal guards. In this way, it symbolized the annual journey of the sun. If the horse entered another ruler’s territory, this was considered just cause to conquer that land.
After a year, the horse was brought back. Following various rituals, the priests sacrificed the horse. The queen then spent a night with the dead horse. After this, the horse’s meat was prepared and distributed as a sign of prosperity.
Several sources suggest that during this night, the queen engaged in intercourse with the horse, or performed other ritual acts. It is unclear whether this actually took place or if it was a purely symbolic gesture emphasizing the fertility of the land and kingdom.
Celtic Horse Worship
The White Horse of Uffington, located in the United Kingdom, was created in the Late Bronze Age (1000–700 BCE). It is a stylized figure of a horse, made by filling deep trenches with white chalk. The exact purpose of the artwork remains unclear. It may have been a symbol for the local Celtic tribe. Joshua Pollard suggests that this horse was also a solar symbol, as the sun appears to pass over it during midwinter.
In several sanctuaries in Gaul and the British Isles, horses were buried whole. Some southern British tribes also buried horses and dogs in grain storage pits.
In northern Italy, a burial site from the 3rd to 1st century BCE was discovered, where several deceased individuals were buried with horses. One young man was buried with only a few horse bones, while a middle-aged woman was buried with an entire horse and the bones of four other horses.
There are two “mass graves” of horses found in Gaul, one in Villedieu-sur-Indre and another in Gondole.
The Villedieu-sur-Indre discovery consists of 28 complete skeletons of adult stallions, lying on their right side, facing south. Nearby, two dogs were found, facing west. Carbon dating suggests that they were buried between 100 BCE and 100 CE, during the time of the Roman conquest of Gaul.
The Gondole site was located near the entrance to the oppidum (fortified settlement) of the Arverni. Here, eight men were buried with horses, all facing south. Their identity remains unclear, as they were buried without grave goods, and their skeletons show no signs of trauma.
Aside from the burial of horses alongside individuals, high-status Celts were also buried with or inside wagons or chariots. Examples have been found in Pembrokeshire and Yorkshire in the British Isles, Waldalgesheim in Germany, and La-Gorge-Meillet and Somme-Bionne in France.
The French archaeologist Patrice Méniel has demonstrated through the study of animal bones at various archaeological sites that there is no evidence of horse consumption in ritual centers and burial sites in Gaul. However, horses were eaten before the arrival of the Gauls.
The Celtic Horse Goddess Epona
Epona was a major goddess in Gallo-Roman religion, serving as the protector of horses, ponies, donkeys, and mules. She was primarily worshiped as a fertility goddess, often depicted with a patera (offering bowl), a cornucopia, and ears of grain, and sometimes with foals. She may have also guided the souls of the deceased to the afterlife, similar to Rhiannon in the Mabinogion. Her cult spread throughout the Roman Empire, especially between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE, and was remarkable for being one of the few Celtic deities worshiped in Rome itself.
Epona was depicted in various forms: often seated on a horse, between two horses, or as a horse tamer. In some images, she appears with a foal, emphasizing her role as a fertility goddess. In Roman art, she is also depicted near horses, often with symbols of abundance and prosperity.
Epona’s cult is mentioned in Roman literature, including by the poet Juvenal, and her statues have been found in Roman stables and barns.
Rhiannon
The Mabinogion is a collection of Middle Welsh stories, one of the most important sources of this language. Rhiannon is one of the key figures and may have been the Welsh counterpart of Epona.
In the First Branch of the Mabinogion, Rhiannon rides a radiant white horse, and the men of the protagonist Pwyll cannot catch up with her. After a three-day chase, she stops when he asks her to do so. The son of Rhiannon and Pryderi also shares an affinity with horses.
Because the Mabinogion was written down by Christian monks, the pagan meaning of Rhiannon has been lost. She was likely associated with the Otherworld and possessed supernatural powers. Proinsias MacCana interprets her as a sovereignty goddess.
Mari Lwyd
The Mari Lwyd, or “Grey Mare”, is an ancient Welsh tradition celebrated after Christmas and in January. During this ritual, a group of revelers visits homes and pubs, challenging the occupants to a playful verbal contest to gain entry. The Mari Lwyd consists of a horse skull, often decorated with colorful ribbons and a white sheet. The group, dressed in colorful costumes, includes characters such as the Leader, the musical Merryman, and comic figures like Punch and Judy.
The ritual begins with a song requesting entry, followed by a humorous debate (pwnco) until the residents relent.
The origin of Mari Lwyd is uncertain, but it may be linked to pre-Christian fertility symbolism.
Horse Worship in Ireland
In the 12th century, the Anglo-Norman writer Gerald of Wales described a horse ritual in northern Ulster. As a Christian, he viewed it with hostility. A white mare was brought before the gathered people, after which the king was required to have intercourse with the horse. The horse was then sacrificed and cooked. The king bathed in a vat of the broth, which was then offered to the gods, with portions eaten by the tribe. This ritual confirmed his kingship.
Rituals linking the king to the land were common in Celtic regions, including the use of coronation stones.
The October Horse in Roman Religion
The October Horse (Equus October) was a sacrifice to Mars on October 15 to mark the end of the agricultural and military season. This ritual, possibly connected to kingship, symbolized the interconnection of agriculture (fertility) and war (authority). The earliest reference to this practice dates to the 3rd century BCE, with the last known mention in the 4th century CE. The ritual likely had Etruscan roots.
Horse sacrifices were rare in Roman tradition, as the Romans usually sacrificed animals they also consumed. The October Horse was offered to chthonic gods, associating horses with the underworld. Unlike other cultures where horses were solar symbols, this emphasized death as a gateway to new life.
The Ritual
The sacrifice of the October Horse took place during a horse racing festival on the Campus Martius, originally a training ground dedicated to Mars for young Romans. Several two-horse chariots (bigae) competed in the race, and the right-hand horse of the winning team was sacrificed.
The horse was pierced with a spear and then offered to the gods. The head was contested as a trophy between two city districts, while the tail was taken to the Regia to sprinkle Vesta’s sacred hearth. The sacrificed animal was not eaten; instead, the entire offering was burned in a holocaust sacrifice.
Symbolism
The ritual reflected Roman identity, where agriculture and military activity were inseparably linked. Mars embodied both war and fertility, and chariots played a symbolic role in Roman rituals, often associated with power and victory. Additionally, chariots can be linked to the Indo-European solar cult, where the sun travels across the sky in a chariot.
The head of the October Horse was considered a powerful symbol of vitality, fertility, and divine power, serving as a valuable trophy. The tail, sometimes interpreted as a symbol of sexual potency, reinforced the connection to fertility rituals.
Connection to Other Rituals
The blood of the October Horse may have played a role in the Parilia, a purification ritual for shepherds. It was likely used in the preparation of the suffimen, a symbolic cleansing mixture that played an important role in various Roman ceremonies.
Horse Rituals in Ancient Greece
In ancient Greece, the mating season of horses coincided with the seafaring season. This may explain why Poseidon was the Greek god of the sea, storms, earthquakes, and horses. He is depicted riding a chariot drawn by sea horses.
Sailors sacrificed horses by drowning them, seeking a safe voyage. In Greece, aristocratic symbols such as horses were replaced by sea horses, aligning with the maritime culture, a tradition later adopted by the Etruscans.
The Greeks sacrificed white horses to Poseidon and the sun, aiming to restore fertility and cosmic order.
The Trojan Horse
The Trojan Horse can symbolize the Indo-European origins of the Trojans and Mycenaeans. Francesco Tiboni suggests that the horse was actually a merchant ship, adorned with a horse-shaped prow, as a tribute to Poseidon. It is likely that the story of the Iliad shares a common origin with the Vedic tale of the Mahabharata, both deriving from a Proto-Indo-European narrative.
The Iliad mentions horse sacrifices multiple times; King Tyndareus, the father of Helen, sacrifices a horse to seal a non-aggression pact among his daughter's suitors, and Achilles offers four horses to accompany his friend Patroclus into the Underworld.
The Horse as a Solar Symbol
The winged horse Pegasus was the son of the horse god Poseidon and the Gorgon Medusa. Wherever he set his hooves, springs emerged, possibly symbolizing fertility. Among other tasks, he carried the thunderbolts of Zeus.
The symbol of the winged horse was not only present in Greece but was also used by Indo-Persian peoples. A pinhead from Luristan, present-day Iran, dating back to the 8th to 7th century BCE, depicts a winged horse. Its flanks are decorated with sun wheels.
Helios, the Greek sun god, rides through the sky every day in his solar chariot, guiding his fiery horses.
The Black Demeter
A myth from Arcadia, a region in the Peloponnesus, tells how Poseidon fell in love with Demeter, who transformed herself into a mare to escape him. Poseidon then turned into a stallion and raped her. From this union, he fathered Arion, a mythical horse that possessed human speech, similar to the Norse myth of Loki and Sleipnir. Arion became the favorite horse of Heracles.
Demeter withdrew into a cave in Phigaleia, dressed in black, to purify herself. In Arcadia, she was therefore also known as Black Demeter. Her followers erected a statue of her near this cave, depicting her with a horse's head and snake-like hair.
In this tradition, Demeter was not only the goddess of fertility but also the goddess of mourning and death, just like her daughter Persephone. The horse, in this context, was also a symbol of death.
Hades, the god of the underworld, is also associated with horses; he rides a chariot drawn by four horses.
The Scythians
The Scythians were an Iron Age people of the steppes, descending from the Sintashta culture. In their nomadic society, the horse played an essential role and was frequently depicted on artistic objects.
The only written source about Scythian religion comes from the Greek historian Herodotus. According to him, the Scythians sacrificed horses as part of royal burial rituals. The Scythian equivalent of Ares was not only the god of war but also of kingship and horses.
Archaeological evidence confirms the practice of horse sacrifice as part of burial rites. Additionally, entire royal courts were buried along with their king, including a concubine, a wine-pourer, a cook, a messenger, and many valuable possessions.
In graves dating back to the 3rd century BCE, depictions have been found of a sun god riding a chariot drawn by two or four horses. These may represent Gaiϑāsūra, whom Herodotus equated with the Greek sun god Apollo.
Germanic & Old Norse Horse Worship
Scandinavian Bronze Age
In Bronze Age Scandinavia, horses were frequently depicted on petroglyphs, such as those on the Villfara stones, the Orstaristningen, and the royal tomb of Kivik. The stones of the royal tomb depict horses and chariots, where the wheels of the chariots form the sun cross. A horse tooth was also found in the grave.
The Bronze Age grave of Sagahögen (1500-1200 BCE) contained 42 decorated stones, 75% of which bore images of horses. One of these images even depicts a warrior engaging in intercourse with a horse.
An archaeological find from Gallemose, Denmark (circa 2000 BCE), includes fragments of a chariot as old as those found in the Sintashta graves.
In the mythology of Indo-European peoples, the sun is often represented as a radiant wheel drawn by a horse. A well-known example is the Trundholm Sun Chariot (1500-1300 BCE), which was not unique. Fragments of a similar sun chariot have been found in a burial mound in Jægersborg Hegn, Denmark.
Solar Horses
The horses Árvakr and Alsviðr pull the sun, or the chariot of the goddess Sól, across the sky. Sól is the sister of Máni, the moon. Like Sól, Dagr (day) and Nótt (night) are also pulled across the heavens by two horses, Skinfaxi and Hrímfaxi.
Pre-Viking rock art from Gotland often depicts the sun as a spoked wheel, frequently in combination with horses.
For the Vikings, the death and rebirth of the sun were of great importance. In their mythology, the sun is devoured by Fenrir.
Freyr
Freyr was the Scandinavian god of fertility and was associated with horses. His priests kept sacred horses in his sanctuary in Trondheim, Norway.
The protagonist of Hrafnkell's Saga is a priest of Freyr who dedicates a horse to the god and kills a boy who dares to ride it. The taboo against riding certain horses appears in multiple Germanic sources.
Burials
It was very common for powerful Vikings to be buried with one or more horses. In Norway, men were particularly buried with horses, but curiously, most graves in Iceland belonged to women.
It is likely that the horse was a symbol of the god Freyr and a status symbol, meant to accompany the deceased to the other world. The meaning of these rituals evolved over time.
Ship burials from the Germanic Vendel period often included horse sacrifices. A 2014 study found that horses were present in 31% of aristocratic Vendel graves and in 17% of Viking graves. Horse burials were also common among the Lombards, Anglo-Saxons, and other Germanic peoples.
The Oseberg ship burial contained the remains of two women from the early 9th century CE. They were buried with at least fifteen horses, four dogs, and an ox. The horses had been decapitated.
A similar funeral ritual is described by Ahmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century. He describes how two horses were made to gallop until they sweated. They were then sacrificed, and their bodies were placed on a ship along with the deceased leader. A slave woman of the leader went around the tents to engage in intercourse with the men before she was sacrificed and placed in the ship. She would accompany her leader to Valhalla.
This practice bears strong similarities to the Scythian royal burial ritual, and archaeological evidence supports this connection.
Sacrifices
A clear example of horse sacrifices in the Viking Age comes from the saga of Hakon the Good, which describes a Yule feast in Trondheim. During this feast, the king was required to participate in the sacrifices, with the horse being the most important offering. However, Hakon, a Christian king, refused to eat horse meat, leading to conflict with his people, who would only recognize him as king if he ate the meat. The blood of the sacrificed animals was collected in bowls and sprinkled over the hall, the gods, and the participants. The meat was then consumed.
In the Hervarar saga, a horse sacrifice in Uppsala is described, where the horse was cut into pieces and eaten by the people. The blood was sprinkled over the sacred tree of Uppsala. Eating horse meat was very common in Scandinavia, but with the rise of Christianity, it gradually became taboo.
The sprinkling of blood is a ritual also found in the Roman Equus October, the mystery cult of Mithras, and the Greek Odyssey. This act symbolized the connection between the dead and the living. By sprinkling the blood, the people shared in the positive power and fertility of the horse, the land, and the king.
Adam of Bremen (1072) describes an Old Norse ritual in which nine sacrifices were made to Odin, who himself had hung on Yggdrasil for nine days and nights. The sacrifice consisted of nine of each living being, such as nine dogs, horses, and even humans. After the sacrifice, they were hung from a tree. This ritual took place every nine years. A similar ritual is mentioned on the Stentoften runestone from 600 CE.
Divination
Tacitus reports that the Germanic tribes foretold the future not only by observing the flight of birds but also through the use of a white mare.
These horses were kept in sacred groves, where they were not required to work or be ridden. They pulled a sacred wagon in which a person could sit. The king or priest observed the mare’s behavior. Adam of Bremen described the same ritual, noting that not only kings or priests but also other social classes used the mare for divination.
Hestavíg
Hestavíg was a popular form of entertainment during the Viking Age in the Icelandic Commonwealth (930–1262). It likely originated in Norway.
The ritual probably consisted of bloody fights between two stallions, encouraged by their owners. These battles aimed to select the best breeding animals and held cultural significance. They created tension and excitement but also led to verbal and physical confrontations among spectators. The outcomes could influence social and political relations between goði (local leaders) and bóndi (farmers), as described in Norse sagas.
The fights took place on neutral ground, offering an opportunity to strengthen friendships or settle disputes. They also provided a setting for young people to meet and form romantic relationships. However, rivalries sometimes escalated into violent conflicts, as recorded in Njáls saga and Víga-Glúms saga.
Sleipnir, the Horse of Odin
Sleipnir, the eight-legged horse from Norse mythology, is ridden by the god Odin. It is the offspring of Loki and the horse Svaðilfari. As the greatest of all horses, Sleipnir is celebrated in prominent Old Norse texts such as the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda. In these sources, it is described as Odin’s loyal steed, capable of traveling between worlds, including the realm of Hel.
Sleipnir’s origin is linked to a myth in which Loki transforms into a mare and mates with Svaðilfari, resulting in the birth of this extraordinary creature. Sleipnir is also mentioned in other Norse sagas, such as the Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks and the Völsunga saga, and appears on Viking Age stone monuments.
Some scholars see Sleipnir’s eight legs and its role as a traveler between worlds as connected to shamanistic traditions. In Icelandic folklore, it is even claimed that Sleipnir was responsible for the creation of the Ásbyrgi canyon. The eight-legged horse continues to influence modern culture, appearing in art, literature, and as an inspiration for the names of ships and other objects.
Conclusion
The horse was an important symbol in Indo-European cultures, representing the sun, the land, fertility, kingship, and the afterlife.
As a solar symbol, the horse pulled the sun across the sky each day. Since the sun marked the seasons, the horse also became a symbol of fertility and the land.
For this reason, the horse was closely tied to kingship. Royal rituals involving horses were intended to emphasize the king’s sovereignty and ensure the fertility and prosperity of the land and its people.
To highlight their status, high-ranking individuals were often buried with one or more horses or with or inside a wagon. Thus, the horse also became a symbol of death.
Horse reliefs
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Horses in classical antiquity
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Horses on armor
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Horses on drinking horns
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Horses on belt fittings
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Horses on jewelry
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Horses on artifacts
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Horses on coins
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