In the old Germanic languages, the term for dragon was the same as for worm or serpent (Old English: wyrm, Old Norse: ormʀ, Old High German: wurm). In broader Germanic mythology and folklore, dragons are often depicted as large, venomous serpents that hoard gold. In later stories, they increasingly took on characteristics of other European dragons, such as growing wings.
Famous "worms" from medieval Germanic works include the dragon slain by Beowulf, Fáfnir from the Völsung cycle, Níðhöggr, and the great sea serpent Jǫrmungandr. Additionally, there are subcategories such as lindworms and sea serpents (sjöorm in Swedish).
The dragon was the mythical variant of the serpent. The reputation of dragons may go back more than 70,000 years, originating in Africa, likely due to conflicts between humans and snakes. From these early stories, dragons spread worldwide, even reaching Australia. In European mythology, dragons often retained a serpentine appearance until the early Middle Ages. This was because they were originally water creatures, possibly playing a role in early myths about rain and floods. In times of drought, dragons were often blamed for the lack of water, a belief that became particularly prominent with the rise of agriculture in Anatolia.
Proto-Indo-European Dragons
Around 3000 BCE, the Proto-Indo-Europeans migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe to Europe, laying the foundation for cultures such as the Vikings, Romans, Greeks, and Celts. Based on archaeology, comparative religious studies, and historical linguistics, we know a great deal about the society of the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders. We have even been able to reconstruct part of their mythology.
In the Proto-Indo-European creation myth, the first man, Manu, and his twin brother Yemo travel through the universe, accompanied by a primordial cow. To create the world, Manu sacrifices his brother.
With the help of heavenly gods, Manu uses Yemo's body to form the earth and humanity, making Manu the first priest. From Yemo's body, the social classes emerge: priests from his head, warriors from his chest and arms, and farmers from his legs.
The third man, Trito, receives sacred cattle as a gift from the gods. However, a three-headed serpent, Ngwhi, steals them. With the help of the Storm God, Trito defeats the serpent and returns the cattle to a priest so they can be sacrificed.
Dragons thus symbolized cattle theft, a major threat in a society based on cattle herding. Fortunately, heroic warriors retrieved the cattle from the dragons. These warriors, often associated with the koryos (bands of young warriors), also used this story to justify raiding cattle from enemy tribes: since the cattle had been "stolen by dragons," the enemy had no rightful claim to them.
Over the centuries, dragons took on additional roles: they not only stole cattle but also kidnapped women or young girls, and later, they hoarded gold and other treasures. The association between dragons and treasure is common in Germanic literature.
Appearance and Terminology
In early Germanic sources, the distinction between dragons and ordinary snakes is unclear. Both are referred to with terms like ormr (Old Norse) or wyrm (Old English), derived from Proto-Germanic wurmiz. The word wyrm was later reborrowed into modern English as "dragon," while the word "worm" can still refer to dragons, particularly those without wings.
In the Fáfnismál, Fáfnir is described as a flying, snake-like creature and referred to as an ormr. In the later Völsunga saga, Fáfnir gains shoulders, which could indicate legs, wings, or both, and he is called both dreki (dragon) and ormr. Similarly, the dragon in Beowulf is referred to as both a wyrm and a draca. In some sources, such as Ketils saga hœngs and the 14th-century Konráðs saga keisarasonar, ormar (serpents) and drekar (dragons) are sometimes depicted as different creatures. Winged dragons in these stories are often called flogdreka (flying dragons).
The terms dreki (Old Norse) and draca (Old English) mean "dragon, sea serpent, or sea monster" and are derived from Proto-Germanic drakō, which in turn was borrowed from the Latin draco, meaning "huge serpent or dragon."
The evolution of wingless, legless worms and lindworms into four-legged, winged dragons in Germanic folklore and literature was likely influenced by continental Europe. This transformation was facilitated by Christianization and the broader availability of translated romances. Thus, it has been suggested that the description in Völuspá of Níðhöggr as a winged and feathered creature is a later addition, possibly arising from a fusion of pagan and Christian imagery.
To bridge the ambiguities in categorizing Germanic dragons, the term drakorm has been proposed. This term refers to creatures described as both dreki (dragon) and ormr (serpent).
Fire- and Venom-Breathing Dragons
According to Germanic folklore and literature, dragons with a venomous breath appeared earlier than fire-breathing dragons. This aligns with the theory that Germanic dragons were originally serpents, some of which are venomous.
The Nine Herbs Charm tells of nine plants used to combat the venom of a writhing wyrm. In this story, Wōden defeats the wyrm by striking it with nine twigs, causing the creature to break into nine pieces. In Edda poetry, both Fáfnir and the sea serpent Jörmungandr have a venomous breath. In Gylfaginning, it is said that Thor will slay Jörmungandr during Ragnarök, but he himself will die after taking nine steps due to the serpent’s venom.
A similar creature from later Orcadian folklore is the venomous Stoor Worm. This dragon was slain by the hero Assipattle and sank into the sea, giving rise to Iceland, Orkney, Shetland, and the Faroe Islands. In British worm legends, dragons are killed by burning their entrails with peat.
One of the earliest examples of a fire-breathing dragon appears in Beowulf. However, this dragon is also referred to as the "venomous scourge" (attorsceaðan). Another dragon in the poem is similarly associated with fire: it melts from its own heat after being slain by Sigmund.
In later chivalric sagas, such as the Sigurðr saga þögla and Nikolaus saga erkibiskups II (c. 1340 CE), dragons breathe both fire and venom. In the latter text, the dragon is even sent by God to compel an English deacon to adopt pious behavior.
Mentions of Dragons in Literature
Beowulf
In Beowulf, Sigemund (in Old Norse tradition, the father of Sigurð) slays a dragon and claims its treasure.
Later in the poem, another dragon is awakened when someone steals a cup from its treasure-filled burial mound. The dragon retaliates by attacking the Geats. Beowulf fights it using a metal shield for protection. Though the dragon is ultimately slain by Wiglaf, a follower of Beowulf, Beowulf himself succumbs to the poisonous wound inflicted by the dragon. The dragon's treasure is reburied in Beowulf's burial mound as a symbol of his legacy.
Fáfnir
In the Völsung cycle, Fáfnir was originally a dwarf. After claiming a hoard of treasure, including the magical ring Andvaranaut, he transformed into a dragon. His brother Regin used broken sword fragments to forge the sword Gram and gave it to the hero Sigurð. Sigurð hid in a pit and waited for the dragon to slither over it, allowing him to stab its underside with the sword. As Fáfnir lay dying, he spoke with Sigurð, sharing valuable mythological knowledge. Sigurð then cooked and tasted the dragon's heart, which enabled him to understand the language of birds. The birds warned him of Regin’s betrayal, prompting Sigurð to kill Regin and claim the treasure for himself.
Jörmungandr
Jörmungandr, also known as the Midgard Serpent (Miðgarðsormr), is a giant sea serpent that encircles the entire world and bites its own tail. He is the son of Loki and the jötun Angrboða. The thunder god Thor is his archenemy. In a well-known tale, Thor goes fishing with the giant Hymir. Since Hymir brings no bait, Thor uses the head of one of Hymir’s oxen. Jörmungandr takes the bait, and Thor pulls the serpent up. Jörmungandr spits venom, and Thor prepares to strike it with his hammer, but Hymir cuts the fishing line, causing Jörmungandr to sink back into the sea.
During Ragnarök, Thor will slay Jörmungandr but will die himself after taking nine steps due to the serpent’s venom.
Níðhöggr
Níðhöggr is a dragon described in the Eddas. He gnaws at the roots of the world tree Yggdrasil. This motif also appears in Persian religion, where the evil spirit Ahriman sends frogs, salamanders, and snakes to poison the world tree, Gaokerena.
Níðhöggr devours the corpses of the damned on Náströnd, the shore of corpses in the underworld.
Dragons in the Gesta Danorum
In Gesta Danorum, a dragon is described as being slain by Frotho I. The dragon guards a mountain and its treasure. Frotho I kills the beast and claims the treasure. A similar tale describes how Friðleifr slays a dragon, paralleling Frotho I's story.
Other Dragons in Sagas
Many other sagas feature dragons, such as Þiðreks saga, Örvar-Odds saga, and Sigrgarðs saga frækna. In these stories, dragons often play the role of monstrous adversaries that heroes must overcome, symbolizing courage, strength, or greed.
J.R.R. Tolkien argued in Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics that the only dragons of true significance in northern literature are Fáfnir and the dragon from Beowulf.
Other scholars, such as Kathryn Hume, suggested that the abundance of dragons and other supernatural creatures in later chivalric sagas turned these monsters into mere props, meant to be defeated by heroes.
Dragons in Archaeology
Viking drakkars, medieval ships, often had figureheads shaped like dragon heads. According to a version of the Icelandic Landnámabók, an old pagan law required the removal of a ship’s figurehead before it came into sight of land. This was meant to prevent the landvættir (guardian spirits of the land) from being frightened.
Scandinavian stave churches were often adorned with carved dragon heads. These decorations are believed to have had an apotropaic function, intended to ward off evil.
Medieval depictions of dragons or worms appear in both Sweden and the British Isles. Swedish runestones from the 11th century frequently depict lindworms, with runic text winding around the body of the dragon. Notable examples include
Sigurð Stones such as U 1163, Sö 101 (Rasmund Stone), and Sö 327 (Gök Inscription), which depict Sigurð slaying Fáfnir, as described in the Völsunga saga.
Four stone crosses on the Isle of Man feature similar scenes. A now-lost fragment from the church in Kirby Hill, England, may have also depicted the slaying of Fáfnir.
Wood carvings from the Hylestad stave church depict scenes from the Völsunga saga, including Sigurð slaying Fáfnir. Notably, Fáfnir is depicted with two legs and two wings, showing how later depictions of the dragon increasingly adopted features of the classical European dragon.
The Hymiskviða fishing scene, in which Thor catches Jörmungandr, may also be depicted on various stones in Scandinavia and England. Examples include the Altuna Runestone in Sweden and the Hørdum Stone in Denmark. These stones often depict Thor in a boat, attempting to pull up the enormous serpent.
Dragons and Christianity
The Christian reception of the Fáfnir legend, despite its pagan origins, led to various interpretations and adaptations. After the Christianization of Scandinavia, the tale of Sigurð was often presented as a historical narrative, detached from its pagan roots. This presentation may have been influenced by Christian symbolism, portraying Sigurð as a kind of soldier of Christ, overcoming evil in the form of Fáfnir. This new interpretation emphasized the moral aspect of the story while downplaying the "pagan" elements such as treasure, curses, and vengeance.
Additionally, parallels were drawn between Sigurð and Christian figures, such as Archangel Michael, who battles the serpent of the Apocalypse, and Saint George, who slays the dragon. As a result, Sigurð was sometimes identified with Jesus or Michael, as part of a Christian effort to integrate the old faith into the new religious context.
In England, the story of Sigurð may have been used by Tostig, Earl of Northumbria, as part of his genealogical claim. He asserted descent from the hero Sigurð, strengthening his political legitimacy. Such genealogical claims were widespread.
It is possible that wood carvings of Sigurð and Fáfnir were sometimes used to honor the dead. By comparing the deceased to a famous hero, their bravery and status were praised, further emphasizing the importance of these heroic tales in the context of funerary rites.
Conclusion
Dragons were the mythical counterparts of serpents and have been present in humanity’s earliest myths. As humans spread across the world, so too did dragon mythology.
Among many Indo-European peoples, dragons play a prominent role in their mythologies. In Germanic and later Viking mythology, dragons are seen as all-destroying monsters. At the same time, they symbolize the malevolent beast that must be defeated by a hero. These two archetypes—the destroyer and the hero’s adversary—reinforce each other.
The dragon does not represent the Christian dichotomy of good and evil but rather a more dharmic perspective in which dangerous adversaries are necessary to make heroic deeds possible. The dragon thus encourages heroism and symbolizes courage. At the same time, people also identify with the dragon, as seen in Viking dragon ships (drakkars), where the dragon projected a fearsome presence: "this dragon comes for you."
Dragon motifs on jewelry and other objects often had a protective function, meant to defend the wearer. Dragons thus symbolize both heroic feats and the protection of their allies. Dragons are often combined with wolves, linking the wolf’s ferocity with the dragon’s protective power.
Jewelry with dragon motifs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/wooden-torque-dragon.html
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Brooches with dragon motifs
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Beardbeads with dragon motifs
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Books with dragon motifs
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Drinking horns with dragon motifs
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Accessories with dragon motifs
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Swords with dragon motifs
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Shields with dragon motifs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-schild-met-midgaard-slang.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-schild-draak-144514273.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikingschild-fafnir.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-schild-midgaard-slang.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/romeinse-schildknop.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-schild-draak.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-schild-urnes-draak.html
Knives & seaxes with dragon motifs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikingsax-met-knoopmotief-damascusstaal.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-sax-hugin-en-munin.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikingmes-odins-raven-damascusstaal.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/10de-eeuwse-vikingsax-jellingestijl.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-sax-borre-stijl-met-benen-grip.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/noorse-draak-vikingsax.html
Axes with dragon motifs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/rvs-viking-handbijl-met-mjolnir.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/mammenbijl.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-bijl-type-k-gegraveerd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-bijl-type-c-gegraveerd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/replica-mammenbijl.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/bijl-viking-draak-yggdrasil.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-bijl-type-l-gegraveerd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-bijl-type-g-gegraveerd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-bijl-type-a-gegraveerd.html
Helmets & armor with dragon motifs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/sutton-hoo-helm.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/deepeeka-vikinghelm-beowulf.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/valsgaerde-8-viking-helm.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-helm-met-draken.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/coppergate-helm.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/spangenhelm-met-wenkbrauwen.html
Clothing with dragon motifs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-tuniek-snorri-grijs-blauw.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-tuniek-urnes-stijl-groen.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-tuniek-snorri-zwart-rood.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-tuniek-snorri-zwart.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/hangeroc-met-viking-draken-rood.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/hangeroc-met-viking-draken-blauw.html
Pouches with dragon motifs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/leren-tas-met-draak.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/geborduurde-viking-schoudertas-urnes-met-vissegraa.html
Belts & belt fittings with dragon motifs
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/keltische-leren-riem-170-cm.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/9de-eeuwse-vikingriem.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/ringerike-vikingriem-deluxe.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikingriem-ringerike-stijl.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikingriem-borre-stijl-deluxe.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/9de-eeuwse-angelsaksische-riem.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikingriem-borrestijl.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-riem-jellinge.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/angelsaksische-riem-sutton-hoo.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikinggesp-grijpende-handen-107557306.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/riemuiteinde-lintvormige-beesten.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/gotland-viking-riemverdeler.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/rond-riembeslag-hordaland.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/rusvik-riembeslag.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-riembeslag-denemarken-verzilverd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/riemeinde-york.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikingriembeslag-adelsoe.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/rusvik-riembeslag-verzilverd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/vikinggesp-langgesnavelde-vogels.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/sutton-hoo-riemgesp-verzilverd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/allemaans-riembeslag-niederstotzingen-verzilverd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-riemtong-british-museum.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/riemuiteinde-lintvormige-beesten-bronskleur.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-riembeslag-knoop-borrestijl-155145742.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/viking-beslag-midgard-slang-verzilverd.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/nl/10de-eeuwse-vikingriem-gnezdovo.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-belt-fitting-adelsoe-silvered.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/round-belt-fitting-hordaland-bronze.html