The Slavic peoples spoke languages related to the Indo-European language group. They lived during the Migration Period (ca. 300 to 800 CE) in Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. They laid the foundation for the medieval and modern Slavic nations.
The Origin of the Slavs
The area where the early Slavs settled remains a topic of debate among scholars. Many historians and archaeologists place the original Slavic homeland in Polesia, a region spanning parts of present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and Poland. Other theories suggesting the origin of the Slavs in the Near East have been dismissed. Historians like Gerard Labuda suggest that the Trzciniec culture (1700–1200 BCE) may have played a significant role in the ethnogenesis of the Slavs. The early Slavs were referred to by Roman authors, such as Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, and Ptolemy, in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE as the Veneti. These authors described the Veneti as inhabitants of the lands east of the Vistula River and along the Venedic Bay (now the Bay of Gdańsk). Later, when the Slavs split into different groups during the Migration Period, Byzantine writers referred to them as the Veneti, Antes, and Sclaveni. The 6th-century historian Jordanes mentioned the Slavs in his work Getica, stating that they "descend from one people but are known under three different names: the Veneti, Antes, and Sclaveni."
Early Slavic Archaeology
The earliest archaeological finds associated with the early Slavs are found in the Zarubintsy, Chernyakhov, and Przeworsk cultures, dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 5th century CE. The archaeological evidence from this period is often difficult to interpret, as many of these finds were also attributed to other peoples, such as Iranian or Germanic groups. However, the materials discovered, including fortified settlements, pottery, weapons, and jewelry, testify to the emergence of a society that was continuously evolving. From the 6th century onwards, Slavonic material cultures began to distinguish themselves further, marked by the rise of the Praha-Korchak, Penkovka, Ipotești–Cândești, and Sukow-Dziedzice groups. These cultures are characterized by fortified settlements (gords), ceramic pots, and other artifacts that further affirm the Slavonic identity.
Slavic Expansion
The first written mention of the name "Slavs" dates to the 6th century CE, a time when the Slavic tribes had settled across much of Central and Eastern Europe. This was during the Migration Period (circa 300–800 CE), when large groups of peoples were driven toward the borders of the Roman Empire by the arrival of the Asian Huns from the Pontic steppes. During this time, the Slavic peoples were in close contact with other groups such as the Scythians, Sarmatians, Goths, and Alans, some of whom were gradually assimilated into their communities. During the 7th and 8th centuries, the Slavs expanded further: westward to the Elbe and the Alps, southward into the Balkans where they absorbed the Illyrians and Thracians, and eastward toward the Volga. Between the 6th and 7th centuries, the Slavs were at the height of their expansion, although this period is poorly documented, and the impact of their influence is often not fully understood.
Slavic Christianization
From the 7th century onwards, the Slavic people gradually converted to Christianity. Both the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches played significant roles in this process. By the 12th century, the Slavs formed the core population of several medieval Christian states. The East Slavs settled in Kievan Rus, the South Slavs in the Bulgarian Empire, Serbia, the Duchy of Croatia, and Bosnia, while the West Slavs established kingdoms in Nitra, Great Moravia, Bohemia, and Poland. One of the oldest known Slavic principalities was Carantania, founded in the 7th century by the East Alpine Slavs, the ancestors of modern Slovenes. This territory included modern-day Slovenia, eastern Friuli, and parts of Austria.
Language Development and Influences
The Slavs developed their own language, Proto-Slavic, from Proto-Indo-European, the common ancestral language of many European and Asian languages. The Slavic languages share many similarities with the Baltic languages, suggesting a shared history. Linguists such as Frederik Kortlandt propose that Proto-Slavic developed in the region that was once the Proto-Indo-European homeland, located in the Pontic-Caspian steppe.
Early Slavic language contained many words describing the daily environment of its speakers, such as terms for family members (e.g., swekry for "mother-in-law"). Interestingly, the Slavic language had few words for concepts specific to mountainous or coastal regions, which may indicate that the early Slavs primarily lived in forests and lowlands.
Additionally, there is evidence of influence from other language groups. Proto-Slavic contains several loanwords from Iranian languages, such as bogъ (god) and sobaka (dog), borrowed from the Scythian and Sarmatian peoples who interacted with the early Slavs. Germanic influences are also present, indicating contact with Germanic tribes at various points in Slavic history.
Physical Descriptions and Tribal Names
The early Slavs were described by various authors, including Procopius and Helmold. Procopius characterized the Slavs as a tall and strong people with light brown skin and reddish hair. They wore simple clothing and often carried modest weaponry, including a spear and a light shield.
The names of Slavic tribes often reflect the regions where they lived. For example, the Moravians lived along the Morava River, and the Milczanie inhabited areas with loess soil. Other names, such as the Polans (pola meaning "field") and the Drevlyans (drevo meaning "tree"), refer to the natural environments in which the Slavs resided.
Some tribal names, like the Croats and Antes, likely have non-Slavic origins. Interestingly, certain tribal names appear in various geographic regions, indicating that Slavic groups spread over a wide area and possibly interacted with other peoples.
Culture and Settlements
Early Slavic settlements ranged in size from 0.5 to 2 hectares. They were often temporary, likely due to the Slavs' nomadic lifestyle, and were frequently located along rivers. These settlements were characterized by semi-subterranean houses, known as Grubenhäuser in German or poluzemlianki in Russian. These dwellings, built above a rectangular pit, varied in size from 4 to 20 m² and housed a single family. Each house featured a stone or clay oven in one corner, a hallmark of East European homes. The population of a settlement typically ranged from fifty to seventy people. There was a central open area for communal activities and ceremonies, and the settlement was divided into zones for production and living.
The Slavs also constructed underground shelters covered with wood to keep out the winter cold. Log cabins were used as saunas, as described by Ibrahim Ibn Ya'qub:
"They do not have bathhouses but use huts in which the gaps are filled with something resembling seaweed—they call it mech (moss). In one corner, they place a stone stove, and above the stove, they open a hole for the smoke to escape. When the stove is sufficiently hot, they close the hole and the door of the hut. Inside, there are pots of water which they pour onto the hot stove, producing steam."
By the 9th century, fortified settlements, or gords, began to appear, often serving as the center of a cluster of villages. However, centers of power likely emerged as early as the second half of the 5th century and the first half of the 6th century, concentrated along the Dnieper and Dniester rivers, remaining active until the early 7th century.
The Slavs preferred hard-to-reach locations to avoid attacks, as noted in Maurice's Strategikon:
"They live in nearly impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and swamps, and have made exits from their settlements in many directions because of the dangers they face."
Clothing and Jewelry
Although clothing varied by region, season, and social status, a general image can be reconstructed. Men wore long tunics made of linen or wool that reached the knees, with trousers underneath. Cloaks were sometimes worn over the tunic and fastened at the right shoulder, leaving the right arm free. Some cloaks were made of leather and lined with fur or other materials. Hats and mittens were worn in winter, some adorned with fur. Both men and women wore leather shoes and boots, along with belts that held knives and whetstones.
Women wore long, striped linen dresses, sometimes with an apron over them. The dresses or tunics were occasionally made in a single piece. Unmarried women wore their hair in braids or loose, but covered it after marriage. Jewelry such as beads, earrings, and twisted wire bracelets were commonly worn, especially by wealthier women.
Musical Instruments
The Slavs had many musical instruments, as historical accounts suggest:
"They have various types of lutes, pan flutes, and flutes an arm's length long. Their lutes have eight strings. They drink mead. They play their instruments during the cremation of their dead, saying that their joy demonstrates the Lord's grace for the deceased." – Ibn Rusta.
Marriage and Early Slavic Law
In early Slavic societies, it was customary to capture brides and marry outside one's own tribe. In some areas, such as Bohemia and Ukraine, however, women were allowed to choose their partners. According to the Primary Chronicle from the 12th century, the Vyatichi, Radimichs, and Severians practiced polygamy rather than monogamy.
Adultery was severely punished among the Slavs, even with death. Ibn Fadlan described that both parties involved in adultery were killed with an axe, and their bodies were hung from a tree. The Byzantine Emperor Maurice wrote that Slavic women loved their husbands so deeply that some could not bear to continue living after their husband's death.
Slavic Law and Customs
Slavic law was based on customs, as no written laws existed until the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. Hospitality was a crucial custom: a tribe that mistreated guests could be attacked by neighboring tribes. Ibn Rusta described how the Slavs paid annual taxes, where every man provided a garment for his daughter. Theft was harshly punished, with offenders exiled or executed by hanging.
Slavic soldiers were also mentioned in Byzantine accounts. Many were regarded as brave mercenaries excelling in rugged terrain. Slavs were known for their courage, such as the leader Daurentius, who killed an Avar envoy when asked to submit to the Avars.
Military Organization of the Slavs
Initially, the Slavs fought without military formations, but by the 6th and 7th centuries, they developed heavier weaponry and more professional fighters. A hierarchy emerged, with military leaders and professional soldiers playing significant roles. One of the largest Slavic armies of the 6th century comprised 3,000 men who attacked Thrace and won several battles against the Byzantines.
Religion
Slavic religion traces its origins to their Proto-Indo-European culture. The first written account of Slavic beliefs comes from the Byzantine historian Procopius in the 6th century CE. He described the Slavs as worshiping a supreme god, the lord of thunder, to whom they sacrificed bulls. They also offered sacrifices during times of danger. The Arab historian Al-Masudi compared Slavic paganism to rational thought and spoke of a law followed by various peoples, including the Slavs. The Slavs believed in one supreme god, who created spirits that controlled nature. They revered spirits of water, forests, fields, and ancestors, and ancestor worship made their religion a form of manism. The moon was considered masculine, the sun feminine, and some deities bore similarities to Baltic mythology, such as Perun (the thunder god) and Veles (the god of wealth and the underworld).
The Slavs believed in a three-part world, symbolized by a world tree, with the heavens above, the earth in the middle, and the underworld below. Sacred natural sites, such as forests and springs, were revered as manifestations of the gods. Triglav, for instance, was depicted with three heads representing the three worlds.
In the 10th century, Prince Vladimir of Kievan Rus' sought to unify Slavic beliefs by centering the state religion on five gods: Perun, Dazhbog, Stribog, Simargl, and Mokosh. Perun was the god of thunder and war, Veles the god of the underworld, and Dazhbog the sun god who brought life energy. Mokosh was the goddess of the earth and fertility.
In 988, Vladimir converted to Christianity. He ordered the destruction of Slavic temples in Kyiv and burned the images of the gods. Despite this, the old Slavic religion persisted for a long time, particularly in remote areas. This led to syncretism, where old Slavic rituals and Christian practices merged.
The Christianization of the Slavs
The Christianization of the Eastern Slavs began gradually, with many regions remaining pagan for a long time. Kievan Rus' was only converted in the 980s under Vladimir the Great. Poland converted earlier, in 966, under Duke Mieszko I. Paganism endured in Pomerania until the 12th century, and the last pagan Slavic settlement, the Rani, was not converted until 1168, when the Danes destroyed their temple dedicated to the god Svetovid.
Swords of the Migration Period
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Jewelry of the Migration Period
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Helmets of the Migration Period
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