The Germanic peoples were tribal groups that lived in Northern Europe during Classical Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. In modern scholarship, this term refers to both the inhabitants of Germania and all Germanic-speaking peoples of that era. This blog focuses on the Germanic peoples who lived in the area of "Greater Germania" until approximately the 1st century CE.
Archaeological Periodization
The Germanic Iron Age is divided into three periods: the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500–100 BCE), the Roman Iron Age (0–375 CE), and the Germanic Iron Age (375–800 CE).
This blog focuses on the Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Ages. See our other blog for more information on the Germanic Iron Age and Migration Period.
Archaeological Cultures & Migrations
In archaeology, we speak of many different cultures. Sometimes these overlap with ethnic cultures, but often they do not. At the same time, the transition between cultures must be viewed in context. In many cases, cultural changes simply reflect changes in customs. See this article for more information on archaeological and ethnic cultures.
The Origins of the Germanic Peoples
The Germanic languages belong to the Indo-European language family. According to scholars, these languages emerged through the spread of Indo-European languages during the Copper Age, originating from the Pontic-Caspian steppe around 3500 BCE. This spread occurred through mixed cultures, such as the Corded Ware culture, which moved toward the area of present-day Denmark, where it absorbed the Funnel Beaker culture. This cultural merging eventually led to the Nordic Bronze Age (2000–500 BCE), which is considered the period in which the precursor to the Germanic languages emerged.
Around 500 BCE, we can for the first time speak of "Germanic peoples," based on archaeological and linguistic evidence. Their origins are characterized by the Jastorf Culture, an archaeological culture located in present-day Germany and Poland. However, some scholars suggest that Germanic peoples also emerged elsewhere, such as in Jutland and southern Scandinavia, pointing to multiple origins.
The Nordic Iron Age
Iron had been used in the Mediterranean region since 1300 BCE but became widespread in Northern Europe only around 500 BCE. The collapse of trade at the end of the Bronze Age made bronze scarce. As a substitute, people began extracting iron from peat bogs. This innovation arose from contact with the Celtic Hallstatt Culture in Central Europe, where knowledge and technology were shared across a large region. The Hallstatt Culture, which originated from the Urnfield Culture of the Late Bronze Age (1200 BCE), marked the beginning of the Early Iron Age in Central Europe during its third phase (800–600 BCE). It was later succeeded by the Celtic La Tène Culture (450 BCE–100 BCE). The northern Iron Age cultures were likely associated with Germanic speakers.
La Tène Influences
Funerary practices, such as cremation and urn burials, continued Bronze Age traditions. Influences from the Central European La Tène culture reached Scandinavia, resulting in finds such as swords, spearheads, jewelry, and cauldrons, including the famous Gundestrup Cauldron and Dejbjerg wagons.
The Jastorf Culture was an Iron Age culture located in what is now Germany, extending northward to Jutland and eastward to Poland. This culture existed between 600 BCE and 100 BCE, forming the southern part of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. There is debate over whether its expansion was due to warlike migrations or peaceful cultural diffusion. In the Netherlands, it is believed that Iron Age innovations resulted from local developments and mutual influences. During this period, long-distance trade flourished, and the various Central and Northern European cultures of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age shared many cultural and religious similarities.
The culture is named after an archaeological site near the village of Jastorf in Lower Saxony. It was characterized by cremation burials in large urn fields and was heavily influenced by the Nordic Bronze Age. The material culture shows a mix of traditions, with the Nordic Bronze Age leaving a strong mark, even as influences from the Celtic Hallstatt Culture emerged from the south.
To the south, the Jastorf Culture bordered the Hallstatt Culture, while in the north, similarities were evident with the later phases of the Nordic Bronze Age. Burial sites in areas such as Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg, Western Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Lower Saxony show continuity of habitation from the Bronze Age well into the Jastorf Period and beyond. Although archaeologists recognize interactions between Celtic and local traditions, the exact nature of these interactions remains unclear.
Expansion of the Area
Initially, the Jastorf Culture was confined to northern Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein. Around 500 BCE, however, it began expanding southward and westward, reaching the Harz Mountains, Thuringia, Lower Silesia, and the Rhineland. This expansion was likely facilitated by the earlier departure or depopulation of these areas, as groups from the Hallstatt Culture, often identified as Celtic or Belgic, migrated to other parts of Europe, including the Mediterranean and Atlantic regions. These migrations were probably driven by climate change, as Northern Europe became colder and wetter, leading to crop failures.
The Peak of the Jastorf Culture
At its height, the core area of the Jastorf Culture was concentrated in northern Lower Saxony (the Lüneburg Heath and the lower Elbe). This area contrasted with the so-called Nienburg Group (or Harpstedt-Nienburg Group) in the west, along the Aller and the middle Weser. The Nienburg Group displayed more similarities to Celtic cultures and had clear contacts with the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Scattered finds of the Jastorf Culture have also been discovered in regions such as Berlin and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania.
Jastorf Culture: A Germanic-Celtic Mixed Culture
The Jastorf Culture reflects a unique period in which influences from the Nordic and Celtic worlds converged. It marks a transitional era when local communities in Northern Europe developed their own identity while maintaining contact with more southerly cultures. This makes the Jastorf Culture a significant topic for archaeological research into early Germanic history.
Most finds from the Jastorf Culture come from burial mounds, flat graves, and so-called Brandgruben Gräber (cremation pits). Notably, grave goods are sparse and modest, and the weapon offerings characteristic of Migration Period graves are entirely absent.
Southern Expansion and Population Movements
The southernmost spread of Germanic cultures outside the Jastorf area only becomes visible at the end of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. This is evidenced by the small number of Late La Tène bracelets found in Thuringia and northeastern Hesse. These finds may indicate population movements from the Elbe/Saale region, through Main Franconia, to the edges of the Alps. These migrations seem to have been influenced by the rise of the Przeworsk Culture.
Another factor that may have facilitated the expansion of the Jastorf Culture was the demographic vacuum created in southern Germany, around the upper Danube and Rhine. From 400 BCE, Celtic groups that had previously inhabited these regions migrated to more prosperous areas in Gaul, Spain, Pannonia, and northern Italy. This exodus created space for new communities, including those of the Jastorf Culture, to settle in the south.
The later phase of the culture witnessed turbulent times, such as the invasions of the Teutons and Cimbri, culminating in their defeat at Aquae Sextiae (102 BCE). Fortified settlements from this period include Borremose (Denmark) and Atuatuca (Belgium).
The First Contacts with the Romans
The first Germanic peoples mentioned in historical sources are the Bastarnae and the Cimbri. Around 100 BCE, the Cimbri and Teutons caused significant upheaval in Europe through their migrations, ultimately leading to the Cimbrian Wars against the Romans. Although these Germanic groups initially achieved success, they were eventually defeated.
By the late 1st century BCE, the Germanic peoples expanded their territory, often at the expense of Celtic tribes. Julius Caesar waged war against the Germanic leader Ariovistus and conquered Gaul, establishing the Rhine as the boundary of the Roman Empire. Later, the Romans attempted to conquer areas east of the Rhine but faced fierce resistance.
Resistance Against Rome
In 9 CE, the famous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place, where the Germanic leader Arminius ambushed and destroyed a large Roman army. This defeat forced Rome to retreat and establish the Rhine as its eastern boundary. Rome subsequently tried to keep the Germanic tribes divided, but uprisings, such as the Batavian Revolt in 69 CE, continued to occur.verdeeld te houden, maar er bleven regelmatig opstanden, zoals de opstand van de Bataven in 69 n.Chr.
An Unstable Frontier
After the Batavian Revolt, some stability returned to the Roman frontier. The Romans constructed defensive works, such as the limes, to protect their borders. However, relations with the Germanic peoples remained tense, characterized by periods of conflict and cooperation.
Roman Iron Age (0–375 CE)
The name "Roman Iron Age" reflects the influence that the Roman Empire began to exert on the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe. This era was marked by intense trade and cultural exchange, leaving clear traces in Scandinavia.
Roman Influence
During this period, many Roman goods were brought to Scandinavia, including coins, barrels, bronze figurines, glass cups, enameled brooches, and weapons. Metal objects and pottery began to adopt Roman styles. Items such as scissors and game pieces appeared for the first time during this era. Many Germanic tribes supplied warriors as mercenaries to the Roman Empire. These warriors returned with new ideas, which they adapted within the Germanic context. As a result, from 300–400 CE, the Germanic peoples increasingly adopted Roman concepts, such as building large wooden temples. Around this time, the runic script was introduced.
Funerary Rituals and Finds
Many bog bodies from this period have been found in Denmark, Schleswig, and southern Sweden. Alongside the bodies, weapons, household items, and woolen clothing were discovered. The primary funerary tradition was cremation, but by 300 CE, inhumation burial became increasingly common.
A remarkable find from this period is the large rowing ships from 400 CE, excavated at Nydam Mose in southern Denmark. These ships demonstrate the advanced shipbuilding and maritime culture of the time.
Important Settlements
In 300 CE, the Gudme Hall complex was constructed in Denmark. This was an important center for the elite, where both power and religion played significant roles. Around the same time, Uppåkra in Sweden grew to become the largest Iron Age settlement in Scandinavia. A wooden temple was built there, remaining in use for over 600 years, until the early Viking Age. Gamla Uppsala, also in Sweden, developed during this period into a significant religious, economic, and political center.
Gold and Silver
Between 500 and 600 CE, gold and silver became increasingly common in Scandinavia. This was a result of the raids on the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes. Many Scandinavians returned with loot in the form of gold and silver, ushering in a new period in Northern Europe: the Germanic Iron Age.
Celtic Helmets & Swords
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Celtic Jewelry
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