The Copper Age, also known as the Chalcolithic, was a period in Europe's prehistory that lasted from approximately 5000 to 2000 BCE. This period followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age. It was an era of late megalithic structures and the first presence of Indo-European languages in Europe.
Archaeological Cultures & Migrations
An archaeological culture is defined based on material remains. This is not the same as an ethnic culture, which also considers language, traditions, religion, history, and social structure. Sometimes an archaeological culture overlaps with an ethnic culture, but often it does not.
When studying the transition from one culture to another, it is important not to draw conclusions too quickly. In many cases, such transitions point to changes in customs or lifestyles rather than the replacement of a population. This requires a nuanced and open-minded approach. See this article for more information about Archaeological and Ethnic Cultures.
To get a better overview of where archaeological cultures originated, we will mention the possible DNA composition for some cultures. For a culture that emerged from significant mixing, we will list the full composition. However, if one group was dominant, we will only name that dominant group.
Keep in mind that European cultures have always been a mix of different groups and have influenced each other. No culture existed completely in isolation from others.
Early Copper Age (5000–3000 BCE)
The first copper objects appeared around 5000 BCE in Southeastern Europe. From there, they spread to Eastern and Central Europe. This was likely because people were becoming more skilled at making pottery. Pots developed thinner walls and were fired at higher temperatures. These kilns also turned out to be suitable for melting copper.
The smelting of copper may have been discovered accidentally — possibly during an attempt to make pigments.
Around 4000 BCE, people in Hungary and Austria began experimenting with a mixture of copper and arsenic, which we call arsenical bronze. This made the copper stronger, although it was not as durable as the bronze that was later made with tin.
Indo-European Migration
Between 4200 and 3500 BCE, the climate in Europe changed significantly. This had major consequences for the Neolithic farmers. Harvests failed, there was famine, and disease spread. Food shortages led to increasing violence between villages. Many settlements built fortifications to protect themselves. From this period, we know that about 10% of discovered skeletons show signs of violent death. In places such as Talheim and Schletz, mass graves have even been found, indicating large-scale massacres.
Climate change also influenced migration. The Proto-Indo-European herders from the Eurasian steppes began migrating into Europe around 3500 BCE. These nomads lived very differently from the Neolithic farmers. For example, they did not use Venus figurines and did not have cities or villages like the farmers.
According to the researcher Marija Gimbutas, these herders violently destroyed Old Europe. However, archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that this was probably not the case. The arrival of the steppe peoples was likely more complex and less violent than previously thought.
Why No Proto-Indo-European Horde
Between 3500 and 3000 BCE, there was still no organized warfare on horseback. The Proto-Indo-Europeans used longbows with stone-tipped arrows, which were difficult to use effectively from horseback. Their warrior culture focused on individual heroism — a value also reflected in ancient stories like the Rigveda and the Iliad. Large, organized armies, where the individual was part of a larger whole, did not emerge until around 1000 BCE.
Genetic research shows that modern Europeans primarily carry the Proto-Indo-European haplogroups R1a and R1b. These originated from a small group of men. However, mitochondrial DNA — which is passed from mother to daughter — shows significant diversity. This suggests that the Proto-Indo-Europeans married women from Neolithic communities.
Horses eventually transformed warfare. They made fast raids over long distances possible. These raids focused on cattle raiding rather than genocide. The goal was not to exterminate entire populations but to achieve personal glory — a key value for the Proto-Indo-Europeans.
Young men used the spoils, such as cattle, to pay a bride price. In some cases, however, they also engaged in bride abduction, which at the time was considered a legitimate form of marriage. This is reflected in ancient legal traditions, such as those of Ireland and India, where bride abduction was one of the recognized forms of marriage.
Migration and Mixed Cultures
After 3500 BCE, horses began appearing in the Trans-Caucasian region. Around 3000 BCE, they were also used in southern Germany, for example at Galgenberg. During this period, Proto-Indo-European herders mixed with Neolithic farmers. The farmers sought protection from conflict and famine, and through intermarriage, the population's DNA became increasingly Proto-Indo-European.
Around 3500 BCE, the Proto-Indo-European herders from the Pontic-Caspian Steppe moved into Eastern Europe, where they mixed with the Dnieper-Donets culture. They then spread to the Baltic region and Denmark. During this migration, the Indo-European languages also spread. This led to the formation of new mixed cultures with Proto-Indo-European influences, but also retained many Neolithic traditions.
Notable cultures from this period:
Globular Amphora Culture in Poland (3400–2800 BCE)
Baden Culture (3300–2800 BCE)
Yamnaya Culture (3500–2000 BCE)
Corded Ware Culture (2900–2450 BCE)
Some of these cultures (such as the Corded Ware and Yamnaya cultures) had predominantly Proto-Indo-European DNA. Others, such as the Baden Culture and the Globular Amphora Culture, contained only a small amount of steppe DNA. This may reflect a society ruled by a small Proto-Indo-European elite.
In the Danube region, the Lengyel Culture expanded into the Czech Republic and Poland but later retreated. At the same time, the Boian-Marica Culture in Bulgaria and Wallachia developed a monarchical system. This is reflected in a royal burial site on the Black Sea coast. This structure was later adopted by the Bodrogkeresztur Culture in the Tisza region. Factors such as labor specialization, economic inequality, and the threat of invasion likely played a role in these developments.
In Western Europe, the Michelsberg Culture along the Rhine and Seine displaced the older Rössen Culture. Around the Mediterranean, a network of cultures emerged, such as the Chassey Culture in southern France and the La Lagozza Culture in northern Italy. These cultures shared a common trade activity: the exchange of honey-colored flint. At the same time, evidence of violence suggests conflicts in this region.
During the same period, Ötzi, the famous ice mummy found in the Alps, lived. Additionally, the megalithic architectural style spread throughout the Atlantic region. This building style introduced agriculture to areas that had previously been less developed.
Middle Copper Age (3000–2600 BCE)
The first half of the third millennium BCE was marked by significant restructuring. The Danube Peoples formed the powerful Baden Culture, which stretched across what would later become the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This culture consisted mainly of Neolithic farmers but possibly had a Proto-Indo-European elite. Around 2800 BCE, the Cycladic Culture emerged in the Aegean Sea.
Meanwhile, the Proto-Indo-European Yamnaya peoples gained dominance in southern Russia and Ukraine. In the west, megalithic culture spread from southern Sweden to southern Spain, while the Mediterranean and Danube cultures fragmented into smaller groups.
In the Iberian Peninsula, fortified cities such as Vila Nova de São Pedro (Portugal) and Los Millares (southern Spain) emerged around 2600 BCE. Despite their differences, these civilizations maintained peaceful trading relationships. In Aquitaine (France), the unexpected Artenac Culture appeared, which quickly gained influence in western and northern France and Belgium. In Poland, a small group of Indo-Europeans mixed with Neolithic farmers and formed the Globular Amphora Culture.
Late Copper Age (2500–2000 BCE)
Between 2500 and 2000 BCE, many cultures in Europe underwent significant changes. The Catacomb Culture, which emerged from the Yamnaya peoples, expanded into Poland. This influenced the transition from the Globular Amphora Culture to the Corded Ware Culture. In Britain, copper was rarely used at this time, leading historians to question whether Britain ever truly experienced a Copper Age.
Corded Ware Culture and Expansion
Around 2400 BCE, the Corded Ware Culture spread into western Germany, Denmark, and southern Sweden. This culture replaced older groups in these regions. Meanwhile, the Artenac peoples reached Belgium. During the same period, the once-thriving Danube cultures completely disappeared.
Changes in the Aegean Region
Around the same time, around 2300 BCE, significant changes occurred in the Aegean region. The Cycladic Culture disappeared and was replaced by the Minoan palace culture on Crete. This new civilization had its roots among the Neolithic farmers and grew into one of the most influential cultures in the Mediterranean.
The Rise of the Bell Beaker Culture
The Bell Beaker Culture emerged around 2800 BCE. It began as a pottery style originating from descendants of Neolithic farmers. This style, inspired by pottery from North Africa, spread from Portugal to Central Europe and the Netherlands.
In the Proto-Indo-European culture, Bell Beaker pottery acquired a new symbolic meaning. It became a symbol of their dharmic religion and society, which revolved around cosmic order and reciprocal agreements. Around 2300 BCE, the first Bell Beaker pottery was found in Bohemia. From that point on, it began to spread further and played a crucial role in the identity of Proto-Indo-European groups.
In some regions, such as the Netherlands, Germany, and the British Isles, the population changed drastically. The DNA profile in these areas can be traced back up to 90% to the people of the Bell Beaker Culture. This shows how profound the genetic and cultural influence of this culture was.
Economic and Technological Developments
During the Copper Age, the economic structure of Europe changed significantly. Even in areas where copper was not yet used, production centers emerged that distributed goods over long distances. Mining of metals and stones developed strongly, and these raw materials were processed into valuable everyday objects.
Overlap with the Bronze Age
The Copper Age overlapped with the Bronze Age in many parts of Europe, which is why the Copper Age is often skipped in historical chronology. The Bronze Age began in Europe between 3200 BCE and 800 BCE. However, as early as 4000 BCE, people were experimenting with arsenical bronze, which was made from a mixture of copper and arsenic.
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