zThe European Neolithic, or New Stone Age, is the period between the introduction of agriculture and the introduction of bronze tools.
The Neolithic begins with the arrival of farmers from Anatolia. These gradually spread from southeast to northwest Europe at a rate of about 1 kilometer per year. This is known as the Neolithic expansion.
The duration of the Neolithic varies by region. In Southeastern Europe, it lasted about 4,000 years (7000–3000 BCE), while in Northwestern Europe, it was shorter, about 3,000 years (4500–1700 BCE).
In some areas, such as the Balkans, from around 5000 BCE, the period is referred to as the Chalcolithicor Copper Age due to the rise of copper processing and the use of copper tools and weapons.
The Development of Agriculture
The shift from a lifestyle based on gathering, hunting, and fishing to one based on agriculture was neither inevitable nor self-evident. The process of this transition took thousands of years and is also known as the Neolithic Revolution.
The so-called Fertile Crescent was probably one of the first regions where agriculture was developed. This area stretches from present-day Egypt through the Levant to Mesopotamia. Thanks to the rich soil and a temperate climate with sufficient rainfall, a wide variety of crops grew there, and many wild animals were present.
Hunter-gatherers could settle semi-permanently in this region around 10,000 BCE because there was enough food available throughout the year. They could benefit from the abundance of wild grains such as einkorn, emmer wheat, and barley. These crops were easy to gather and store. Over centuries, people learned to select and sow these grains, which gradually led to the development of domesticated crops. By sowing selected seeds, crops began to develop that were more resistant to diseases, had higher yields, and became more dependent on human intervention — for example, because they could no longer survive well in the wild.
Shortly after this, the first animals were domesticated. Humans probably caught and kept wild animals to stabilize their food supply. This was attractive because these animals provided not only meat but also other valuable products such as milk, hides, wool, and bones for tools. The domestication process involved selecting animals with traits that made them easier to keep. Animals that were less aggressive, grew faster, and adapted better to life in captivity were more likely to be kept and bred. Over time, this led to genetic changes that distinguished these animals from their wild ancestors.
Examples of early domestication include sheep and goats, which were relatively small and manageable and had a broad diet. Cattle followed later, as they were larger and more difficult to tame, but eventually became valuable for both food and labor. Pigs, which are omnivorous and reproduce quickly, also became important.
Thus, agriculture began in the Fertile Crescent, but the hunter-gatherers in Anatolia quickly adopted this practice, around 8200 BCE. This population is also known as the Anatolian Neolithic Farmers (ANF).
From around 7000 BCE, a group of these Anatolian farmers migrated to the area around the Aegean Sea, introducing agriculture to Europe. This group is referred to as the Early European Farmers (EEF). The arrival of agriculture marked the beginning of the Neolithic or New Stone Age in Europe.
DNA studies show that agriculture was introduced to Europe by the so-called Aegean Neolithic Farmers with little mixing with the indigenous hunter-gatherers already living in Europe. The spread of these farmers to Great Britain took about 2,500 years. Regions such as the Baltic states were only reached later, around 3500 BCE.
Neolithic Cultures
Although no written sources from this period exist, archaeological research has provided much information about the origins, organization, and practices of Neolithic communities. DNA research has provided insight into migration patterns and genetic relationships.
In addition to farming communities, hunter-gatherers who had populated Europe since the Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic also lived there. The farmers and hunter-gatherers generally lived alongside each other without conflict. In some cases, there was an exchange of knowledge and practices. For example, people of the Swifterbant culture (5300–3400 BCE) learned to make pottery, and the hunter-gatherers on the Pontic-Caspian steppe learned how to domesticate herds. These were the ancestors of the Proto-Indo-European steppe herders.
Neolithic societies shared some basic characteristics. They lived in small communities, depended on agriculture, animal husbandry, and hunting, and produced pottery. Polished stone axes were crucial for clearing forests and making agriculture possible.
However, regional differences also emerged. In this introduction, we limit ourselves to the largest archaeological cultures of this period.
An archaeological culture is defined based on material remains. This is not the same as an ethnic culture, which also considers language, traditions, religion, history, and social structure. Sometimes an archaeological culture overlaps with an ethnic culture, but often it does not.
When studying the transition from one culture to another, it is important not to make quick assumptions. In many cases, such transitions point to changes in habits or lifestyles rather than the replacement of a population. This requires a nuanced and open approach. See this article for more information about Archaeological and Ethnic Cultures.
Linear Pottery Culture
The Linear Pottery Culture or LBK culture (from the German "Linearbandkeramik") was one of the earliest farming cultures in Europe. This culture existed between approximately 5500 BCE and 4400 BCE and is characterized by the use of striped or "linear" decorations on pottery.
The LBK culture settled on fertile loess soil. When too many people lived in the same area, a group would migrate to the next patch of loess soil.
In just 360 years, the culture spread over 1,500 kilometers across much of Central and Eastern Europe, from present-day Germany to Hungary, parts of Poland, and the Baltic states. This migration was essential for the spread of farming practices in Europe and had a profound impact on the society and economy of the regions where they settled.
The farmers specialized in growing emmer wheat, einkorn, peas, and lentils. They cultivated hemp and flax for making ropes and textiles. They kept cattle for milk and meat, and sometimes goats and pigs. They supplemented their diet with hunting deer and wild boars.
The LBK people settled in villages with long, rectangular houses and maintained a communal network of trade and cultural exchange. They buried their dead in single graves or cremated them.
Cardial-Impressed Culture
The Cardial-Impressed Culture derives its name from the way pottery was decorated: using cockle shells and other Cardiidae to imprint patterns into the clay. This unique decoration technique is a distinctive element of the culture.
In contrast to the LBK communities, which primarily spread through fertile loess regions, the people of the Cardial-Impressed Culture traveled by sea from around 6400 BCE. Using catamaran-like boats, they settled along the Adriatic coast and expanded into Italy, France, and Spain. From the coastal areas, they moved further inland. Between 5000 and 4000 BCE, they developed the tradition of erecting standing stones, such as menhirs and dolmens, in northern France.
They cultivated grains such as wheat and barley, as well as legumes such as lentils. Their livestock farming focused mainly on sheep and goats, animals that were relatively easy to transport by boat. They also occasionally kept cattle and pigs. Hunting remained an important part of their food supply; about 40% of the meat came from hunting, particularly wild boars.
The influence of the Cardial-Impressed Culture on the landscape was considerable. In core areas, such as parts of France and Italy, permanently inhabited villages emerged where intensive agriculture and livestock farming were practiced. This led to large-scale deforestation. Around these central zones were seasonal camps used by herders and hunters. Although the landscape bears clear traces of their activities, surprisingly little is known about the structure of their villages and houses.
In central France, the Linear Pottery Culture and the Cardial-Impressed Culture met. Here, the Michelsberg Culture emerged. The people of this culture migrated to the British Isles and introduced, among other things, the tradition of standing stones, such as Stonehenge.
Funnelbeaker Culture
The Funnelbeaker Culture (abbreviated as TRB Culture) was an archaeological culture in Northern and Central Europe from about 4300 to 2800 BCE. It was a fusion of different cultures of Neolithic farmers and Mesolithic hunter-gatherers.
The culture emerged in northern Germany and quickly spread to Scandinavia and Poland. This expansion may have stimulated the migration of the Michelsberg Culture to the British Isles.
During the TRB Culture, hunter-gatherers adopted agriculture and livestock farming. In the Netherlands, the TRB built on the Swifterbant Culture and constructed the Drenthe dolmens. Most megalithic structures in Northern and Central Europe were built during this period.
The people kept sheep, cattle, pigs, and goats, and they also hunted. They cultivated grains but quickly exhausted the soil, which forced them to move regularly. During this period, copper was mined for the first time, and the Funnelbeaker people imported copper objects, especially daggers and axes, from Silesia. Another technological development was the invention of the wheel, although it was not yet used throughout the entire Funnelbeaker area.
In the south and east, the TRB Culture was replaced by the Corded Ware Culture (2900–2450 BCE) and the earlier Globular Amphora Culture (3400–2800 BCE). In the west, it was succeeded by the Single Grave Culture (2800–2200 BCE), a local variant of the Corded Ware Culture.
Neolithic Monuments
Megalithic tombs are above-ground burial chambers made of large stone slabs (megaliths) set upright and covered with earth or smaller stones. They were primarily built during the Neolithic period by farming communities in Europe, the Mediterranean, and neighboring regions. There are several types, such as dolmens, which consist of a large flat stone supported by standing stones and covered by a capstone or mound of earth.
Megalithic tombs were used as long-term resting places for the dead and often show traces of rituals, such as prehistoric art and finds of pottery and bones. Famous examples include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey.
Some structures do not contain human remains, such as the court cairns in Scotland and Northern Ireland, the Severn-Cotswold tombs in England, and the Stone Tomb in Ukraine.
Dolmens
The dolmen or portal tomb consists of two or more vertical stones with a large capstone placed on top as a roof. Many dolmens contain human remains and pottery, but it is not yet certain whether they were primarily used as graves. It is believed that most dolmens were originally covered with an earthen mound.
The earliest dolmens were built around 5000 BCE in France, from where the tradition spread to Ireland, the British Isles, and Scandinavia. In the Early Bronze Age, they were even built in Sardinia, Sicily, and the Italian Peninsula. This shows that these monuments remained in use even after the Stone Age.
Passage Graves
The second most common type of tomb is the passage grave. This is usually a square, round, or cross-shaped chamber with a roof of flat stones or a barrel vault. The chamber is accessible through a long, straight passage, and the entire structure is covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes the grave is also surrounded by a ring of stones. Famous examples include the sites at Brú na Bóinne and Carrowmore in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney, and Gavrinis in France.
Allée Couverte
The third type of tomb is a diverse group known as Allée Couverte. These are chambers placed in a line under long mounds. The Irish court tombs, the British long barrows, and the German Steinkisten belong to this group.
Menhirs
Standing stones, or menhirs, were erected in large numbers; about 50,000 examples are known in Europe. Some of these stones may have had an astronomical function, such as marking a position or predicting an event. In some areas, long and complex alignments of these stones have been found, the largest known example being at Carnac in Brittany, France.
Stone Circles
In parts of Great Britain and Ireland, a common type of megalithic structure is the stone circle, with well-known examples such as Stonehenge, Avebury, Ring of Brodgar, and Beltany. These circles also show signs of astronomical alignments with both the sun and the moon. Stonehenge is particularly famous for its alignment with the solstice. Stone circles have also been found in the rest of Europe. The circle at Lough Gur near Limerick in Ireland dates from the Bell Beaker period, roughly contemporaneous with Stonehenge.
The stone circles were probably built later than the megalithic tombs, during the transition from the Neolithic to the Copper Age. They were often constructed by Neolithic farmers and adapted by the Proto-Indo-European peoples.
Other Structures
In addition to these monuments, Neolithic farmers built many other large structures, such as cairns (graves covered with small stones), tumuli or burial mounds (graves covered by a layer of earth), ditches, hills, terraces, and circular enclosures such as henges. Notable examples include Silbury Hill in England, an artificial hill, and Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia, a prehistoric step pyramid.
Many of these monuments were decorated with cup and ring marks or other motifs carved into the stone.
Language in Neolithic Europe
Long before the Bronze Age steppe herders migrated to Europe, the early farmers and hunter-gatherers in Europe spoke Pre-Indo-European languages. We have no direct evidence of these languages, such as written sources, but linguists suspect that Europe at that time had enormous linguistic diversity, comparable to the multitude of languages spoken in North America before the arrival of European colonists.
One of the few surviving remnants from that period is likely Basque, a unique language that belongs to no known linguistic family and is therefore called an isolated language. Some researchers, such as Theo Vennemann, have suggested that Basque was part of a larger "Vasconic" language family that was once widespread across Europe. Vennemann also proposed that there was an influence from an "Atlantic" or "Semitidic" group of languages, possibly originating from the Mediterranean region.
In Northern Europe, Uralic languages, such as Sami, later spread. These show traces of influence from vanished local languages, indicating complex interactions between different language groups in that region.
The influence of Pre-Indo-European languages is also visible in words we still know today. Linguist Guus Kroonen proposed the "Agricultural Substrate Hypothesis," which suggests that some agriculture-related words in languages such as Proto-Germanic (the ancestor of modern Germanic languages) and Proto-Greek originate from an older Pre-Indo-European language. Examples include words like arwīt (“pea”) and gait (“goat”), which have no clear origin in Indo-European languages. These words may have come from the languages of the Neolithic farmers.
There is also evidence of Pre-Indo-European influences in Greek place names. Place names with the suffix -ss-, such as Knossos and Parnassos, are often seen as remnants of languages spoken in the region before the arrival of the Greeks. This feature does not come from Greek or other Indo-European languages and may point to a linguistic legacy of the prehistoric inhabitants of the region. Such place names remind us that the history of language in Europe extends much further back than the arrival of the Indo-Europeans.
Conflicts in the Neolithic
The development of agriculture, also known as the Neolithic Revolution, was not necessarily good news. Neolithic farmers were generally shorter and less healthy than Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, and their diet was less varied.
The transition to agriculture was accompanied by a shift in thinking. A different, long-term mindset was needed to sow food in the ground and only harvest it later.
Because farmers settled permanently in one place, they became vulnerable. Crop diseases and climate fluctuations could cause scarcity and famine. This likely led to conflicts between different tribes, which were often extremely bloody.
Around 5000 BCE, the population in Europe declined significantly, possibly due to climate change, food shortages, disease, and warfare. During this period, several massacres took place in the area of the LBK culture, with evidence found in sites such as Talheim (34 individuals), Schletz-Asparn (probably around 300 individuals), and Schöneck-Kilianstädten (at least 26 individuals).
Among the Talheim skeletons were 16 children, nine men, seven women, and two adults of unknown gender. All of them died violently. Some skeletons showed signs of repeated trauma that had fully healed, suggesting that violence was a common or even routine part of this culture. The men and children killed were from the Talheim region, but the women came from farther away. This may indicate raids and the abduction of women during these conflicts.
The Schletz-Asparn massacre took place near a settlement protected by a wide, deep ditch. The skeletons were found in this ditch and showed signs of severe head injuries. Most victims were male, again suggesting the abduction of women. After the massacre, the settlement was no longer inhabited.
In Schöneck-Kilianstädten, the victims were also found in a settlement. They were buried in a mass grave, where pottery shards, animal bones, and stone objects — refuse from the settlement — were also found. Most victims were young men, and many bodies showed signs of deliberate mutilation or torture.
Bioarchaeological research indicates that more than 10% of early farmers in Northwestern Europe suffered weapon-related injuries, underscoring the pervasive nature of violence.
Although warfare was not yet organized, these archaeological findings make it clear that violence and rivalry between groups were a significant part of Neolithic life.
From Neolithic to Copper and Bronze Age
The area of Southeastern Europe between 6000 and 3500 BCE is also known as Old Europe. In this region, various cultures shared many common traits, such as the shape of their houses and settlements and their pottery-making techniques. They built tells — large settlements where thousands of people could live — and were probably among the first to use wheels. They were capable of making pottery with very thin walls, which required firing clay at very high temperatures. Since they could stoke fires to such high temperatures, they were probably also the first to melt metal. This marked the beginning of the Chalcolithic or Copper Age.
The Copper Age lasted roughly from 5000 to 2000 BCE, depending on the region. Despite the name, copper objects were not used in large quantities.
Between 4200 and 3800 BCE, the climate changed — winters became colder than in the previous 2000 years. As a result, the tells in Old Europe were abandoned, and settlements began to be fortified.
Old Europe bordered the Pontic-Caspian steppes, a region inhabited by nomadic herders who spoke Proto-Indo-European — the ancestor of most European languages. The Proto-Indo-Europeans had contact with the people of Old Europe; they had learned how to keep cattle from Old Europe, and their distinctive horse-head-shaped clubs have been found in Old European graves. However, their lifestyle was very different from that of the Neolithic farmers.
Around 3500 BCE, more and more traces of these steppe herders began to appear in Europe. A theory, especially known through the work of Marija Gimbutas, suggests that the steppe peoples violently destroyed the societies of Old Europe and the Neolithic farmers — but this theory is inaccurate.
Why No Proto-Indo-European Horde
From around 4800 BCE, the steppe peoples domesticated the horse, initially primarily for its meat during the winter months. From 4000 BCE onward, they also learned to ride horses, which had a profound impact on their way of life.
By domesticating the horse, small warbands on horseback could travel farther on raiding expeditions. These raids were not intended for killing but for achieving individual glory by stealing livestock. This livestock was used to pay a bride price or to offer to the gods. The practice of cattle raiding is linked to the Koryos phenomenon, in which young men swore oaths and set out to gain prestige.
Proto-Indo-European society was oath-bound and based on reciprocal agreements between tribes and their leaders. As a result, the warbands did not raid tribes with whom agreements had been made but traveled farther afield. This is likely how the first steppe herders entered Europe. It is possible that skirmishes escalated, leading to conflicts on a larger scale.
Although conflicts certainly occurred, the migration of the Proto-Indo-Europeans was not accompanied by mass slaughter.
The warrior culture revolved around individual achievements and heroic deeds, as also reflected in the Rigveda, Iliad, and Odyssey. Large, organized armies did not emerge until much later, around 1000 BCE. Before that, the focus on individual glory and heroic acts had to give way to a mentality in which the individual was merely part of a larger, organized fighting force.
Warfare on horseback, as practiced by the Huns and Mongols, was also not yet possible at this time. The Proto-Indo-Europeans used longbows with stone-tipped arrows, which were difficult to use effectively from horseback.
Furthermore, the migration was not large-scale; there were no massive hordes of people moving from the steppes into Europe.
Genetic research shows that modern Europeans primarily carry the Proto-Indo-European haplogroups R1a and R1b, which originated from a small group of men.
However, mitochondrial DNA — which is passed from mother to daughter — shows significant diversity. This suggests that these men married Neolithic women. Over time, male EEF DNA was gradually replaced by Indo-European DNA, while female Neolithic DNA remained present.
As we have seen, Neolithic farmers often had conflicts among themselves. Famine was common, and around 2900 BCE, there may have been a plague epidemic. The Proto-Indo-European steppe herders likely lent livestock to the Neolithic farmers, thereby integrating them into their oath-based culture. They also provided protection and stability.
This mixing led to new cultures such as the Corded Ware Culture and the Baden Culture. Neolithic influences remained visible in later Indo-European civilizations, such as the Greeks and Vikings, with elements such as agricultural goddesses, the sun cross, the tree of life, and spiral patterns.
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