From 56,800 years ago, the Cro-Magnons or European Early Modern Humans (EEMH) migrated from Western Asia to Europe. They lived alongside and interbred with the indigenous Neanderthals, who became extinct between 40,000 and 35,000 years ago.
The first group of Cro-Magnons died out around 38,000 BCE due to a volcanic eruption that covered large parts of Europe in ash. About 1,000 years later, a second group of Cro-Magnons migrated to Europe. This group formed a fundamental founding population and became the basis for all later Cro-Magnon cultures. The Cro-Magnons maintained an advanced culture while living in the harsh climate of the European Ice Age.
Cro-Magnon Society
The Cro-Magnons developed various types of weapons, such as bows and spears, which they used to hunt mammoths, among other animals. They domesticated the dog, crafted musical instruments, used red ochre — possibly as cosmetics — and made jewelry. They also traded raw materials over long distances, which were used to make Venus figurines — portable female figures, often with wide hips, large breasts, and a rounded belly.
The discovery of Venus figurines initially led to the assumption that Cro-Magnon society was matriarchal. However, there is no evidence to support this. For example, most recovered graves are of men and boys, sometimes accompanied by luxurious grave goods.
Relatively few Cro-Magnon graves have been found. This could mean that not everyone was buried; some people may have been cremated and scattered, or exposed to the elements.
The individuals who were buried were often accompanied by grave goods such as tools and jewelry. This suggests that the Cro-Magnons may have believed in an afterlife or resurrection. They were also buried with red ochre. Multiple individuals were often buried in the same grave, frequently of both sexes.
Cro-Magnon society was generally relatively egalitarian. However, grave goods indicate that some individuals held higher status. For example, the grave of two children with very luxurious grave goods suggests that high status may have been hereditary.
Some graves belong to individuals who were probably not suited for hunting or heavy physical labor. Yet they received rich grave goods, which suggests that they may have held special roles, such as shaman or craftsman.
Shamanism played a role in Cro-Magnon spirituality. In the Chauvet Cave (28,000 BCE), Lascaux Cave (15,000 BCE), and Grotte des Trois-Frères (12,000 BCE), hybrid figures — a mix of human and animal — have been depicted. These may represent shamanistic ecstasy, where the shaman exchanges his human body for that of an animal to embark on a spiritual journey.
It is likely that these shamans wore matching attire for such rituals, including headdresses made from antlers, as found in the Mesolithic excavations of Star Carr (9300–8400 BCE) and Badburg-Königshoven (7800–7600 BCE).
There is also evidence of (ritual) cannibalism and the creation of drinking vessels from human skulls. This may have supported these shamanistic journeys or served another, as yet unknown, ritual purpose.
Cro-Magnon Cultures
The period when the Cro-Magnons lived in Europe — the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age — can roughly be divided into three cultures.
The Aurignacian culture or Aurignacian (43,000–26,000 years ago) is known for the early art of the Cro-Magnons, such as the Venus of Hohle Fels, which was created between 40,000 and 35,000 years ago. This figure, discovered in Germany, is one of the oldest known Venus figurines. The Aurignacians also created the oldest flute, the Hohle Fels flute, and produced other artworks and ivory jewelry. They were the first modern humans in Europe, settling there after the migration from Africa.
The Gravettian culture or Gravettian (33,000–22,000 years ago) succeeded the Aurignacian culture. During this period, most Venus figurines were made, usually from ivory or limestone. More than 200 Venus figures from this culture have been found, such as the Venus of Galgenberg, Venus of Dolní Věstonice, Venus of Willendorf, Venus of Mauern, and Venus of Laussel. The Gravettians were hunter-gatherers who lived in a cold climate. The culture extended from Portugal to Siberia. The Gravettian culture developed into the Epigravettian in the region of Italy and the Solutrean in the west.
From the Solutrean emerged the Magdalenian culture or Magdalenian (17,000–12,000 years ago). This culture had refined techniques in tool production and art. They produced both functional objects and artworks from materials such as deer antler, bone, and ivory. A well-known example is the Venus of Waldstetten, which belongs to the portable artworks of this culture. They also made phallic symbols — more than sixty have been found. The well-known prehistoric cave paintings, such as those in Lascaux and Altamira, come from this time and depict animals in prominent roles. These artworks provide a unique insight into their lives and worldview. The Magdalenian culture spread over much of Western Europe.
During the last Ice Age, which lasted until about 12,000 BCE, large parts of Europe were covered with glaciers and were therefore uninhabitable. It is estimated that only 5,000 to 130,000 people lived scattered across the continent at the time. These populations were concentrated in relatively small habitable areas, known as refugia, such as northern Spain and southern France (of the Solutrean) and the Italian Peninsula (of the Epigravettian).
After the end of the Ice Age, these groups began to repopulate Europe during the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age. They are now referred to as Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG).
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