The Greek antiquity can be divided into different historical periods. In this blog, we provide a brief overview of the history of ancient Greece for each period.
Mycenaean Greece
The Mycenaean civilization was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Greece, lasting from approximately 1750 BCE to 1050 BCE. The Mycenaeans were a mix of Neolithic farmers and a Proto-Indo-European elite. The Mycenaean society is considered the first true Greek civilization on the mainland, featuring palace centers, urban structures, art, and the Linear B script, which represents the earliest form of the Greek language.
The Mycenaeans were heavily influenced by the Minoan culture on Crete and other Mediterranean civilizations but developed their own complex society. The most important city of the Mycenaean civilization was Mycenae, but other powerful centers included Pylos, Tiryns, and Thebes. These cities were the centers of power and culture in Mycenaean Greece.
The Mycenaeans were known for their innovations in various fields, such as engineering, architecture, and military infrastructure. They built large fortresses and palaces, often on strategic heights, such as in Mycenae and Tiryns. Military power was a crucial aspect of society, with a warrior elite loyal to the wanax (the king).
The Mycenaean Greeks engaged in extensive trade across much of the Mediterranean. They maintained close ties with many other civilizations, including the Egyptians and the Hittites. Texts from Egypt and Asia Minor refer to Mycenaean regions under the names "Danaya" and "Ahhiyawa," indicating Mycenaean kingdoms. These international contacts demonstrate the influence that the Mycenaeans had in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Bronze Age Collapse
The Late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean was characterized by advanced civilizations with extensive trade networks and complex political systems. Cooperation among empires such as Troy, Egypt, the Hittites, the Mesopotamians, and the Mycenaeans fostered mutual dependence, but this also made them vulnerable to disruptions. The collapse can thus be compared to the modern financial crisis (2007–2008 CE).
There are various theories about the cause of the collapse, including climate change, volcanic eruptions, drought, disease, invasions by the Sea Peoples or Dorians, or economic disruptions caused by the rise of ironworking. Following the collapse, the shift in metal technology led to the Iron Age.
According to the Systems Collapse Theory of Joseph Tainter, an increase in social complexity leads to societal collapse because people revert to simpler ways of living. The complex political, economic, and social organization of the Late Bronze Age made it difficult to rebuild society after a disruption.
Climate change brought drought to the Eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age, leading to a decline in tree growth. Tree rings in Anatolia indicate a severe dry period from around 1198 to 1196 BCE. Additionally, groundwater levels in the Dead Sea region dropped drastically. Research shows that the drought affected locations associated with the collapse of the Bronze Age.
The collapse of the Late Bronze Age was a period of societal decline in the Mediterranean around 1200 BCE. It was particularly felt in Egypt, Anatolia, the Aegean, Eastern Libya, and the Balkans. The collapse was sudden and violent, causing cultural disruptions that led to a sharp decline in material wealth and population numbers. The Bronze Age collapse has been linked to events such as the fall of Troy, the destruction of Mycenae and the Hittite Empire, and chaos in Canaan.
The palace economy of the Mycenaean civilization, the Aegean region, and Anatolia disintegrated, transforming into the small, isolated village cultures of the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100–750 BCE). The Proto-Indo-European Hittite Empire collapsed, while empires such as the Middle Assyrian Empire and the New Kingdom of Egypt survived in weakened forms. Other cultures, such as the Phoenicians, gained more autonomy due to the declining military presence of Egypt and Assyria.
The fall of the Bronze Age is considered one of the worst disasters in ancient history. Many cultures remember this period as a "lost golden age." Only a few states survived the collapse, such as Assyria, Egypt, and the Phoenician city-states, but even they were weakened. By the end of 1200 BCE, Assyria became weaker, while Phoenicia regained its independence. Smaller Aramean kingdoms emerged in the Levant, and the Philistines settled in southern Canaan. Troy disappeared; the Iliad and Odyssey may be echoes of this distant past.
The Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200–800 BCE)
The Greek Dark Ages, also known as the Post-Palatial Bronze Age (c. 1200–1050 BCE) and the Early Iron Age (c. 1050–800 BCE), mark a period of great change.
Early Iron Age
From 1050–800 BCE, four centers had larger populations: Lefkandi, Athens, Argos, and Knossos. Potters introduced simple geometric designs and improved their techniques. Around 900 BCE, the Phoenician alphabet was adopted and modified with vowels, leading to a new writing system that eventually became the foundation of the Latin alphabet.
Trade and Culture
Despite previous assumptions, there was more trade and cultural exchange with the East after 900 BCE than previously thought, as evidenced by finds in Lefkandi. These contacts contributed to economic recovery. Lefkandi is also known for a rich burial site containing horses and luxury goods, indicating a social hierarchy.
Social and Economic Recovery
Greeks lived in small communities, often organized around family groups (oikoi). Agriculture and craftsmanship continued, but on a smaller scale. The use of iron increased, making weapons and tools more affordable. Economic recovery began in 800 BCE, with increased trade and artistic developments such as decorative pottery and bronze objects.
Archaic Greek Period
The Archaic period lasted from c. 800 BCE to the second Persian invasion in 480 BCE. During this period, the Greeks settled around the Mediterranean and Black Seas, becoming part of an extensive trade network.
The period began with strong population growth and major transformations, including the rise of poleis (city-states). According to Anthony Snodgrass, a "structural revolution" at the beginning and an intellectual revolution at the end marked this era. The Archaic period laid the foundation for the Classical period in politics and culture. Key developments included the Greek alphabet, early literature, monumental sculpture, red-figure pottery, and the emergence of hoplite armies.
In Athens, early democratic institutions were introduced by Solon and later reformed by Cleisthenes. In Sparta, institutions such as the helot status and the Peloponnesian League were established under Lycurgus, making Sparta a dominant power.
Political Developments and the City-State
The Archaic period saw the rise of the polis as the dominant political unit. Many cities were ruled by tyrants, and early laws and administrative systems emerged. Urbanization, such as synoikismos (the merging of settlements), reinforced this development. Cities like Athens and Argos united physically and politically, leading to the classical definition of the polis.
Tyranny in Archaic Greece
From 700 BCE, tyrannies emerged, where leaders seized power, often supported by private armies. Well-known tyrants included Cypselus in Corinth and Theagenes in Megara. Although the word "tyrant" later acquired a negative connotation, these leaders were not considered illegitimate at the time.
Greek Colonization
Between 800–700 BCE, the Greeks founded numerous colonies around the Mediterranean and Black Seas. These colonies became independent city-states. The first colonies appeared in Sicily and southern Italy, known as Magna Graecia ("Greater Greece"). Later, the Greeks also settled in the west (e.g., Marseille) and the east (e.g., the Black Sea).
Athens: Rise and Power
During the early Classical period, Athens was an important city, but it only became one of the most powerful Greek cities in the late 6th century BCE. Around 636 BCE, the first recorded political event occurred: a failed coup by Cylon, who attempted to become tyrant of Athens. At that time, the monarchy had been replaced by the archon, a position reserved for aristocrats (the Eupatridae).
In 594 BCE, reforms were introduced, such as the abolition of debt slavery and granting citizenship based on wealth rather than birth, which encouraged social mobility. A popular assembly and a council of 400 were established, giving citizens more political influence.
Sparta: A Highly Organized City-State
Sparta developed a unique political system around 800 BCE. After the First Messenian War (740–720 BCE), the Messenians became helots (state-owned serfs). At the same time, Spartan officials (ephors) gained more power. Around 560 BCE, Sparta formed a network of alliances, the Peloponnesian League, to prevent uprisings and counter rivals like Argos.
Population and Economy
The Greek population doubled around 800 BCE, leading to larger settlements. Most people lived on small farms, growing grains, olives, and grapes. Trade increased, especially with the East and southern Italy. By 600 BCE, coinage was introduced, simplifying trade and payments.
Art
During the Archaic period, Greek artistic styles evolved toward more realistic and natural forms. Monumental sculpture emerged, and pottery transitioned from geometric patterns to the early red-figure technique.
Eastern influences became evident, particularly in pottery and sculpture. Initially, Greek sculpture consisted of small bronze figures of horses and humans, primarily found in religious sanctuaries. Later, life-sized human figures were carved from hard stone, inspired by Egyptian models.
The most famous sculptures from this period are the kouroi (young men) and korai (young women), which served as grave markers or religious offerings. By 600 BCE, the use of kouroi declined.
Greek pottery evolved from geometric designs to figurative artwork. Around 700 BCE, Corinth developed the black-figure technique, followed by the red-figure technique in Athens around 525 BCE. These innovations allowed for more detailed decoration.
Literature
The oldest Greek literature, especially poetry, dates from this period and was a development of the Indo-European bardic tradition. Homer’s epics, such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, are the earliest preserved works. In addition to epic poetry, lyric poetry emerged, along with the first beginnings of tragedy. The earliest prose writing appeared around 600 BCE.
Religion
The Archaic period saw the rise of monumental stone temples, such as the Temple of Apollo in Corinth. These temples often housed cult statues. The number of offerings and votive statues, such as bronze figurines, increased significantly. Sanctuaries such as Olympia and Delphi became Pan-Hellenic centers.
Olympia
In Olympia, where the cult of Zeus had existed since the Dark Ages, the number of offerings increased dramatically. This coincided with the revival of the Olympic Games in 776 BCE.
Delphi
Delphi became an important religious center, partly due to the development of the famous oracle. From 800 BCE onward, offerings from all over Greece were brought to this sacred site.
Funeral Rituals
Greek funeral practices became more diverse. In Athens, cremation and burial were alternated, often with simple grave offerings. Around 700 BCE, cemeteries were moved outside city walls. In some cities, such as Sparta, extravagant funerals were restricted by law.
Philosophy
During this period, Greek philosophy developed and was written down. Thinkers such as Thales combined practical knowledge with philosophical ideas.
Military Developments
The Greeks developed the hoplite shield. Around 700 BCE, the characteristic phalanx tactics emerged. In naval warfare, the trireme (a ship with three rows of rowers) was introduced, further advancing Greek naval power.
Classical Period
The 5th century BCE is primarily viewed from the Athenian perspective, as most stories, plays, and writings from that time come from Athens. The century began with key events, such as the fall of the last Athenian tyrant, the reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BCE, and the Ionian Revolt in 500 BCE, which led to the Persian invasions. Despite the Persian conquest of parts of Greece, the Greeks defeated the Persians at Marathon (490 BCE) and later at Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea (480–479 BCE).
After the Persian Wars, Athens led the Delian League, which eventually transformed into an Athenian empire. This caused tensions with allies and Sparta, leading to the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE. After a brief peace, the war resumed, and Sparta defeated Athens in 404 BCE, marking the end of Athenian dominance.
Sparta was ruled throughout its history by a diarchy, with two kings from the Agiad and Eurypontid dynasties. According to legend, these royal lines descended from the twins Eurysthenes and Procles, who were descendants of Heracles and conquered Sparta after the Trojan War.
War Against the Persians
The Ionian Revolt against the Persians (499–494 BCE), supported by Athens, led to Persian retaliations. At the Battle of Marathon (490 BCE), the Athenians defeated the Persians. In 480 BCE, Xerxes attempted to conquer Greece again, but 31 city-states resisted. Despite sacrifices like at Thermopylae, the Greeks achieved major victories at Salamis and Plataea.
Afterward, Athens dominated the Delian League, causing tensions with Sparta. This led to the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE, which ended in Spartan victory (405 BCE) and Athens’ subjugation. After the war, Sparta weakened due to defeats against Thebes, particularly at Leuctra (371 BCE), which led to Messenian independence. Both Sparta and Thebes eventually lost their dominant positions due to continued conflicts. The power vacuum in Greece was filled by Macedonia under Philip II, who in 338 BCE defeated the Greek city-states at the Battle of Chaeronea and founded the Corinthian League. However, Philip was assassinated in 336 BCE, and his son, Alexander the Great, continued his campaign against Persia.
Alexander conquered Persia, defeated King Darius III, and reached as far as India. His sudden death in 323 BCE ended his ambitions, but he left behind a lasting legacy in the form of Hellenism.
Hellenistic Period
The Hellenistic period (323–30 BCE) began with the death of Alexander the Great and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII, the last Macedonian ruler of Egypt. During this time, new monarchies emerged, blending Macedonian and Eastern traditions. Alexander’s generals, known as the Diadochi, divided his empire. Major kingdoms included those of Antigonus and his son Demetrius in Macedonia and Greece, Ptolemy in Egypt, and Seleucus in Syria and the former Persian Empire. Smaller realms included the Attalids in Anatolia and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.
The borders between the Hellenistic kingdoms were initially unstable. Antigonus attempted to expand his power but was defeated in 301 BCE at the Battle of Ipsus. By the mid-3rd century BCE, borders had mostly stabilized, though conflicts continued. Meanwhile, cities such as Alexandria and Antioch became major centers of Hellenistic culture. Many Greeks migrated eastward, settling in new cities such as the Indo-Greek Kingdom in Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Within Greece, city-states formed two leagues: the Achaean League and the Aetolian League. These leagues were often at odds and became involved in the wars of the Diadochi. The Antigonids clashed with Rome and were ultimately defeated; Macedonia became part of the Roman Republic in 149 BCE. The Seleucid Empire gradually declined and was conquered by Rome in 64 BCE. Ptolemaic Egypt remained independent until 30 BCE, when it too was annexed by the Romans.
With Rome’s takeover of the Achaean League in 146 BCE, Greek independence came to an end.
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