When delving into the knowledge of cultures such as the Germanic or Celtic, one quickly encounters a lack of written sources. Moreover, the existing written sources are often authored by perceived adversaries. However, there is more to rely on than just written records and archaeology. Linguistics can provide insights into the society, mythology, and religion of these enigmatic peoples.
Parallels can be drawn among Roman, Greek, Slavic, Germanic, Viking, and Celtic cultures. How? It's because they all share a common ancestry, namely the Indo-European culture. It's crucial not to rush to conclusions in comparative research; otherwise, peculiar results may arise, such as, for instance, "Polynesian culture loved fishing, and the Vikings in Iceland did too, so there's a connection."
What is Indo-European?
Indo-European is a language family considered the origin of numerous languages spoken in Europe, Asia, and parts of the Middle East today. It is named after the geographical region where the earliest known Indo-European languages were spoken, namely the area between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, known as the Indo-European homeland. The Indo-European language family includes languages such as Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Persian, Hindi, and many others. These languages share various common features indicating a shared origin, including similarities in grammatical structures, vocabulary, and phonetic rules. While there is no written evidence of spoken Indo-European, linguists have reconstructed proto-language forms based on comparative language studies. Studying Indo-European and its descendants not only helps us better understand linguistic history but also the spread and migration of early Indo-European peoples and their influence on world cultures and languages. It also aids in filling gaps in prehistoric cultures like the Germanic and Celtic.
Which Peoples Belong to the Indo-European Language Family?
The list of peoples belonging to the Indo-European language family is extensive. Here, we limit ourselves to some highlights, considering our focus on European historical topics in other blog posts.
Indo-Aryans
Among them are the ancient Indians, who settled in the Indian subcontinent and laid the foundation for Indian civilization and the Sanskrit language.
Iranian Peoples
This includes, among others, the ancient Persians, who settled in the Persian Empire and laid the foundation for Persian culture and ancient Iranian languages such as Old Persian and Avestan.
Italic Peoples
This includes, among others, the Romans, who laid the foundation for the Roman Empire and the Latin language, from which Italian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, and other Romance languages originated.
Celtic Peoples
This includes, among others, the ancient Celts, who inhabited a significant part of Western Europe and laid the foundation for Celtic culture and languages such as Old Irish, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Breton.
Germanic Peoples
This includes, among others, the Germanic tribes, including the ancient Germans, Vikings, and the tribes that later formed the basis for modern German, English, Dutch, and Scandinavian languages.
Slavic Peoples
This includes, among others, the Slavs, who spread across Eastern Europe and laid the foundation for Slavic languages, including Russian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, and Serbian.
Hellenes
The ancient Greeks, who played a significant role in the development of European culture and laid the foundation for the Greek language.
Migration of Indo-European Peoples
The migration of Proto-Indo-European peoples and later Indo-European peoples is a subject studied in linguistics, archaeology, genetics, and other disciplines. While there is still much debate and discussion, scientists have developed various theories and insights based on different types of evidence.
According to the Kurgan hypothesis, one of the most accepted models, it is assumed that early speakers of Proto-Indo-European originated from the steppe regions north of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Around the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE, they likely migrated westward and eastward, colonizing new areas and coming into contact with indigenous peoples.
The migration of Indo-European peoples led to the spread of their languages and cultures across much of Europe, Central Asia, and parts of the Middle East. For example, the Indo-European invasion of the Indian subcontinent resulted in the rise of Vedic Sanskrit and the development of Vedic culture.
Archaeological evidence, such as the spread of certain material cultural artifacts, can help trace the migration routes of Indo-European peoples. Genetic studies have also contributed to our understanding of migration patterns by analyzing DNA from modern populations and identifying genetic similarities between different Indo-European groups.
European Peoples with Non-Indo-European Origins
Virtually all traditional peoples and languages we now know in Europe have an Indo-European basis. However, there are very interesting exceptions.
Basques
The Basques are an ethnic group primarily residing in the Basque Country, a region located in the northeast of Spain and the southwest of France. The Basque language, also known as Euskara, is an isolated language with no demonstrable relation to other language groups.
Hungarians
The Hungarians, also known as Magyars, constitute the ethnic majority in Hungary. The Hungarian language, also referred to as Magyar, belongs to the Uralic language family, having no relation to Indo-European languages.
Finnish
The Finns are the largest non-Indo-European people in Scandinavia. They mainly inhabit Finland and speak Finnish, which also belongs to the Uralic language family.
Sami
The Sami, also known as Sami or 'Lapps,' are the indigenous people of Sápmi, a region spanning parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. The Sami languages belong to the Sami language family, which is also part of the Uralic language family.
Maltese
Maltese is the official language of Malta. It is an Afro-Asiatic language belonging to the Semitic branch of that language family.
Proto-Indo-European & Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European was the ancestral language for Indo-European, estimated to have emerged around the 4th to 3rd millennium BCE. However, this is a mere estimation, given the lack of written records of Proto-Indo-European, and it can only be reconstructed based on comparative linguistic analysis of its descendant languages. Indo-European is believed to have originated around the 2nd millennium BCE.
Society
Indo-European culture is a hypothetical culture reconstructed based on comparative linguistic analysis of Indo-European languages and their similarities. Although there are no direct historical records or archaeological evidence of Indo-European culture itself, some cultural and social characteristics are derived from linguistic reconstructions and comparisons. Here are some features associated with Indo-European culture:
Earliest documented Indo-European languages: Include Hittite, spoken in the ancient Hittite empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), and Sanskrit, used in ancient India.
Language: A notable feature of Indo-European culture is the common language family stretching across a vast geographical area. Indo-European languages exhibit similar grammatical structures, vocabulary, and phonetic features, indicating a common origin.
Social Structure
Indo-European culture is presumed to have had a hierarchical social structure, where social status was based on factors such as ancestry, wealth, and military skills. A clear distinction is believed to have existed between social classes, with an aristocratic elite and a broader farming community. Some theories endorse the division between the fighting (ruling) religious and working (agricultural) classes, a division that persisted in medieval Europe.
Religion
Indo-European culture is assumed to have had a polytheistic religion, venerating various gods. There are common elements in the mythology and religious beliefs of Indo-European peoples, such as the worship of the sky god and the sun, as well as an emphasis on rituals and sacrifices.
Agricultural Society
Indo-European culture is often associated with an agricultural lifestyle, where farming was the primary economic activity. Grain cultivation, animal husbandry, and agricultural communities were likely crucial aspects of daily life.
Mobility and Migration
Another characteristic of Indo-European culture is the presumed mobility and migration of Indo-European language speakers. It is believed that they spread across large parts of Europe, Asia, and parts of the Middle East, disseminating their languages and cultural traditions.
Status of Women
Generally, men seem to have played a dominant role in Indo-European society, with power and authority often held by male leaders and aristocrats. Linguistic reconstructions indicate a linguistic distinction between male and female forms of words and grammatical constructions in Indo-European languages, suggesting some form of gender differentiation and an approach to the role of women in society.
Mythological Stories and Religious Beliefs
Indo-European cultures' mythological stories and religious beliefs indicate the existence of female deities worshipped, such as the goddess of fertility, agriculture, and marriage. This suggests that women may have played a significant role in fertility rituals and religious practices.
Archaeological finds can also provide insight into women's position in Indo-European society, with graves and burial discoveries sometimes showing that women possessed certain status symbols, jewelry, and personal belongings, indicating social and economic positions.
Indo-European Gods, Religion & Mythology
When the Romans conquered neighboring peoples, they often viewed their gods as another variant of Roman gods. The Germans, too, possibly saw Roman gods as another variant of Germanic gods, using Roman god figurines in Germania. Interestingly, they were partly correct. Most religions of Indo-European peoples show similarities.
There always existed a dichotomy between the immortal gods residing in the heavens above and mortal humans dwelling on the earth below. The earth was seen as an extensive, flat, and round continent surrounded by water, namely the ocean. Although the stars might sometimes be associated with mythical figures or stories, they had no specific cosmic significance. According to Martin L. West, the idea of the world tree was likely introduced later from North Asian cosmologies. The Greek myth might have been influenced by the Near East, while the ideas of a central pillar in Indian and Germanic traditions likely originated from shamanistic cosmologies of the Finns and Neolithic peoples in Central and North Asia. The concept of the cosmic egg, symbolizing the primal state from which the universe originates, is found in many Indo-European creation myths. One theory reconstructs a creation myth involving the twin brothers Manu (Man) and Yemo (Twin) as the forerunners of the world and humanity, and a hero named Trito (Third) ensuring the continuity of the original sacrifice. The primal state preceding the creation process was a time of emptiness. The Vedic, Norse, and, at least partially, Greek traditions testify to an era when cosmological elements were absent. There was no air, no heaven. There was no sand, no sea, no waves, etc.
In the creation myth, the first human, Manu, and his gigantic twin brother, Yemo, travel through the universe, accompanied by the primordial cow. Manu sacrifices himself to create the world. With the help of heavenly gods such as the sky father, the storm god, and the twins, and with the involvement of both natural elements and human physical remains, Manu becomes the first priest, initiating the sacrifice as the original condition for cosmic order. His deceased brother, Yemo, becomes the first king, while social classes emerge from different parts of his body (the priesthood from his head, the warrior class from his chest and arms, and the common people from his genitals and legs). While there are differences between the European and Indo-Iranian versions, the primordial cow was most likely sacrificed in the original myth, giving birth to other animals and crops. This is because the pastoral lifestyle of the Proto-Indo-Iranian speakers was closer to that of the Proto-Indo-European speakers.
Manu and Yemo seem to be the protagonists of a myth of the sovereign function, serving as a model for later priests and kings. While the legend of Trito must be interpreted as a myth of the warrior function, serving as a model for all later warriors. The story of Trito served as a model for later epic myths about raiding cattle and most likely as a moral justification for the practice of raiding among Indo-European peoples. In the original legend, Trito only takes back what rightfully belongs to his people, those who sacrifice to the gods in the proper way. This forms the source of the myth of cattle raiding that existed in both Germanic and Celtic, for example, in the Old Irish story Táin Bó Cúailnge. This was likely also the basis for the concept of a group of warriors like the Irish Fianna or the Norse Berserker.
Some researchers suggested that the original being named Yemo was actually depicted as a twofold hermaphrodite rather than a twin brother of Manu. These beings were seen as complementary to each other, intertwined in a close relationship. The Germanic names Ymir and Tuisto were interpreted as twins, bisexual, or hermaphroditic. Some myths also mention a sister of the Vedic Yama, also considered a twin, associated with incest. According to this interpretation, the original being may have sacrificed itself or split in two, with a male half and a female half, serving as a prototype for the separation of genders.
Words derived from the Proto-Indo-European First Priest Manu, meaning "Man" or "ancestor of humanity," include the Indian Manu, the legendary first man in Hinduism, and Manāvī, his sacrificed wife. Additionally, we have the Germanic Mannus, the mythical ancestor of the West Germanic tribes, and the Persian Manūščihr, a Zoroastrian high priest from the 9th century AD. From the name of the sacrificed First King Yemo, meaning "Twin," are derived the Indian Yama, the god of death and the underworld, the Avestan Yima, king of the golden age and guardian of the underworld, the Norse Ymir, the ancestor of the giants, and most likely Remus, who is killed in the Roman foundation myth by his twin brother Romulus. Finally, we have the Vedic Trita, the Avestan Thrita, and the Norse þriði, all stemming from the First Warrior Trito, meaning "Third."
Many beliefs within Indo-European traditions explain the origin of natural elements as a result of the original separation of Yemo: his flesh is often associated with the earth, his hair with grass, his bones with stone, his blood with water, his eyes with the sun, his spirit with the moon, his brain with the clouds, his breath with the wind, and his head with the sky. The use of sacrificing animals, with parts distributed according to established social patterns, as seen in ancient Rome and India, is seen as a way to restore balance in the cosmos, governed by the original sacrifice.
The story of Manu and Yemo has had a significant impact throughout Eurasia after the migrations of the Indo-Europeans. Various cultures have variations of this myth, with Greek, Old Russian (such as the poem about the Dove King), and Jewish versions depending on Iranian traditions. There is even a Chinese version of the myth introduced from ancient India. The Armenian version of the myth of the First Warrior Trito is also based on Iranian traditions, while Roman interpretations are influenced by earlier Greek versions.
The Underworld
The realm of the dead was often depicted as a dark underworld from which there was no return. Many Indo-European myths recount a journey across a river, accompanied by an old man, to reach the Other World. The Greek tradition of the dead being ferried across the river Styx by Charon likely reflects this belief, and the idea of crossing a river to reach the underworld is also present in Celtic mythologies. In various Vedic texts, there are references to crossing a river, such as the Vaitarna, to reach the land of the dead. The Latin word "tarentum" (grave) originally meant "crossroads." In Norse mythology, Hermóðr must cross a bridge over the river Giöll to reach Hel, while in Latvian folk songs, the dead must cross a swamp instead of a river. The use of coins on the bodies of the deceased to pay the ferryman is mentioned in ancient Greek, Celtic, and early Slavic funeral practices. Although the earliest coins date back to the Iron Age, this may indicate an ancient tradition of offering sacrifices to the ferryman. A recurring element in various mythologies is the presence of a gate to the Other World, usually guarded by a dog with multiple heads (sometimes with multiple eyes). This dog also served as a guide and ensured that those entering the gate could not escape. The Greek Cerberus and the Hindu Śárvara are likely derived from the word *Ḱérberos ("spotted"). Bruce Lincoln has also suggested that the Norse Garmr is related to this, although this is not linguistically supported.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans may have believed that the remote part of the earth was inhabited by a people free from the hardships and pain experienced by us. This common motif is evident in legends such as the Indian Śvetadvīpam ("White Island"), where the inhabitants are as white as the moon and do not need food. Similarly, the Greek Hyperborea ("Beyond the North Wind") describes a land where the sun constantly shines, and the people know "neither sickness nor bitter old age." The Irish Tír na nÓg ("Land of the Young") is a mythical region in the western sea where "happiness lasts forever, and there is no satiety." Another example is the Germanic Ódáinsakr ("Glistening Plains").
The Apocalypse
Various traditions show traces of an eschatological myth within Proto-Indo-European culture, describing the end of the world after a devastating battle. The story begins when a powerful demon, often originating from another hostile tribe, takes over the rule of the gods or hero community (such as the Norse Loki, the Roman Tarquin, or the Irish Bres). Under his reign, the subjects are treated unjustly and forced to build fortifications, while the demon favors outsiders on whom he relies. After a particularly gruesome act, the demon is ousted by his subjects and seeks refuge with his foreign relatives. A new leader (such as the Norse Víðarr, the Roman Lucius Brutus, or the Irish Lug), often the silent nephew or grandson (*népōt) of the banished demon, then takes the lead. The two forces come together and destroy each other in a devastating battle. The myth concludes with the disruption of cosmic order and the beginning of a temporary cyclical period. In Norse and Iranian traditions, the last battle is preceded by a devastating "cosmic winter."
Gods
The pantheon of Proto-Indo-European includes various reconstructed deities related to similar attributes and a series of myths. These deities are considered linguistic relatives originating from a common origin. Among them are the god of daylight and the sky, his partner the mother goddess of the earth, his daughter the goddess of dawn, his divine twin sons, and a sun goddess. Some deities, like the weather god and the shepherd god, appear only in limited traditions, respectively, the Western (European) and the Greco-Aryan, and may be later additions not spreading across different Indo-European dialects.
It is unlikely that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had a fixed collection of gods or assigned specific numbers to them. They used the term deywós (heavenly) to refer to "a god." This term had various variants in different languages, such as the Latin deus, Old Norse Týr (< Germ. tīwaz), Sanskrit devá, Avestan daeva, Irish día, or Lithuanian Dievas. On the other hand, humans were associated with mortals and the earthly, forming the basis for words like "man" in various languages.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans believed that gods were free from death and illness because they were nourished by special foods not available to mortals. In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, for example, it is said that the gods "do not become satiated by merely looking at this nectar." In the Edda, we are told that Odin, the supreme god, "lives on wine alone. he needs no food. Wine is both drink and meat to him." Sometimes, abstract concepts could also be deified, such as the Avestan mazdā (wisdom), venerated as Ahura Mazdā (Lord Wisdom), or the Greek god of war Ares (associated with ruin, destruction), or the Vedic protector of treaties Mitráh (from mitrám, contract).
Gods were referred to in various ways, often with titles like "the celebrated," "the highest," "king," or "shepherd." It was believed that gods had their own language and true names. Sometimes, this was kept secret from mortals. In Indo-European traditions, gods were considered the "givers" or "bestowers of good things." Although certain gods were tasked with overseeing justice or contracts, most Indo-European gods did not have a fixed ethical character. Their immense power allowed them to act at their discretion; therefore, rituals, sacrifices, and praises from worshippers were necessary to obtain favors and prosperity for the community.
Supreme God
The chief god in the Proto-Indo-European pantheon was the god *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, whose name literally means "Father of the Sky." He was seen as the personification of the sky. The sky was considered the dwelling place of the gods, namely, the heavens. Dyēus is the most documented deity among all Proto-Indo-European gods. He served as the gateway to the gods and was both the father of the divine twins and the goddess of dawn (Hausos), giving him a prominent position in the pantheon. However, it is unlikely that he was their supreme ruler or possessed the highest power, as Zeus and Jupiter did later on.
Due to his divine nature, Dyēus in Indo-European myths is often considered "all-seeing" or "with a broad vision." While it is unlikely that he specifically oversaw justice and righteousness, as Zeus did in Greek mythology or the duo Mithra-Varuna in the Indo-Iranian tradition, Dyēus at least served as a witness to oaths and treaties.
In Greek mythology and Roman mythology, Zeus and Jupiter are considered the main gods of their pantheons. Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr also appears in the Rigveda as Dyáus Pitā, but in a less prominent role as an ancestral figure mentioned in only a few hymns. There are also references to Dyēus Ph₂tḗr in the Illyrian god Dei-Pátrous, as confirmed by Hesychius of Alexandria. Although the ritual expressions "Debess tēvs" in Latvian and "attas Isanus" in Hittite are not direct descendants of the formula *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, they still retain the original structure.
Goddess of Dawn
H₂éusōs is reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European goddess of dawn. In various traditions (Indic, Greek, Baltic), Dawn is seen as the "daughter of the sky," *Dyḗws. In these traditions, and in a fourth one (italicized), the goddess of dawn is sometimes banished or driven off the stage because she lingers too long.
An ancient epithet for Dawn seems to have been *Dʰuǵh₂tḗr Diwós, meaning "Daughter of the Sky." She is often depicted as opening the gates of the sky when she appears in the morning. Generally, it is believed that Hausōs never ages and is reborn every morning. She is associated with red or golden attire and is often depicted as dancing.
In the Rigveda, twenty-one hymns are dedicated to the dawn goddess Uṣás, and in the Avesta, the dawn goddess Ušå is honored. Greek poetry and mythology give a prominent role to the dawn goddess Eos. Aurora, the Roman goddess of dawn, is a reflection of the Greek Eos, but it is possible that the original Roman goddess of dawn was still worshipped under the cultic title Mater Matuta.
The Anglo-Saxons worshipped the goddess Ēostre, associated with a spring festival that later gave its name to the month and eventually to the Christian holiday Easter in English. The name Ôstarmânôth in Old High German suggests that a similar goddess was also worshipped in South Germany. Even in the sixteenth century, the Lithuanian dawn goddess Aušra was still acknowledged.
Goddess of the Sun
Seh₂ul and Meh₁not are reconstructed as the goddess of the sun and the god of the moon in Proto-Indo-European mythology.
A common motif in Indo-European myths is the daily journey of *Seh₂ul through the sky on a chariot drawn by horses. Although this motif is likely inherited, it certainly appeared after the introduction of the wheel in the Pontic-Caspian steppe around 3500 BCE. Therefore, it is a late addition to Proto-Indo-European culture.
While the sun was personified as an independent female deity, the Proto-Indo-Europeans also depicted the sun as the "lamp of Dyēws" or the "eye of Dyēws."
Nature Gods
The belief that gods ruled over nature was expressed with the suffix -nos (feminine -nā), meaning "lord of." This is reflected in names like the Greek Ouranos (lord of rain) and Helena (mistress of sunlight), Germanic *Wōðanaz (lord of frenzy), Gaulish Epona (goddess of horses), Lithuanian Perkūnas (lord of oaks), and in the Roman Neptunus (lord of the waters), Volcanus (lord of flaming fire), and Silvanus (lord of forests).
The Horse Twins
The horse twins are a duo of twin brothers found in almost every Indo-European pantheon. They have names that mean 'horse' (h₁éḱwos). Although the names are not always related, and there is no reconstructed Proto-Indo-European name for them.
In most traditions, the horse twins are brothers of the solar maiden or the morning god and are the sons of the sky god Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr. For example, the Greek Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) are the "sons of Zeus"; the Vedic Divó nápātā (Aśvins) are the "sons of Dyaús," the sky god; the Lithuanian Dievo sūneliai (Ašvieniai) are the "sons of God" (Dievas); and the Latvian Dieva dēli are also the "sons of God" (Dievs).
The Divine Twins are depicted as young men who carry the sun across the sky, riding on horses, and are sometimes depicted as horses themselves. They rescue people from mortal danger in battles or at sea. The twins are often distinguished: one is depicted as a young warrior, while the other is seen as a healer or engages in household tasks. In many stories, the Divine Twins save Dawn from a watery peril, stemming from their role as sun horses. At night, the sun's horses return to the east in a golden boat, where they traverse the sea to bring back the sun every morning. During the day, they travel through the sky in search of their consort, the morning star.
Similar patterns to the horse twins are found in the Anglo-Saxon Hengist and Horsa (whose names mean "stallion" and "horse," respectively), the Celtic "Dioskouroi" who are worshipped as a horse twin by the Atlantic Celts according to Timaeus, the Germanic Alcis, a pair of young male brothers worshipped by the Naharvali, or the Welsh Brân and Manawydan. The horse twins could possibly be based on the morning and evening star (the planet Venus), and they often have stories in which they 'accompany' the sun goddess, due to the close orbit of the planet Venus to the sun.
Animism
Animism is the concept in which souls or spirits exist not only in humans but also in plants, stones, or natural phenomena. The foundation of Proto-Indo-European mythology is animism. This indigenous belief in animism can still be found in the descendants of Indo-European cultures. For example, in Norse mythology, the Vættir are reflections of the indigenous animistic nature spirits and gods. Trees play a central role in Indo-European cultures and are considered the abode of tree spirits. In the Indo-European tradition, storms are personified as very active, assertive, and sometimes aggressive elements. Fire and water are deified as cosmic elements that are also essential for the functioning of the household. The personified Earth is associated, on one hand, with fertility and growth, and on the other hand, with death and the underworld.
Goddess Earth
The goddess *Dʰéǵʰōm is seen as the personification of the earth. She is depicted as a large and dark shelter for humans, while Dyēws is the bright sky where the immortal gods reside. *Dʰéǵʰōm is associated with fertility, growth, and also with death as the final resting place of the deceased. She was likely the wife of *Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, the sky god. The connection between earth and sky is related to fertility, as crops grow from the moist earth nourished by the rain from the sky. Therefore, the earth is seen as the source of good things. In ancient English prayers, even the earth was asked to be fertile. Slavic farmers regarded Zemlja-matushka, Mother Earth, as someone who would predict a good harvest for the community. In Greek mythology, the connection between Zeus, Semele, and Demeter is also associated with fertility and growth. These connections are also found in other cultures, such as the Vedic connection between Dyáus Pitā and Prithvi Mater, the Greek connection between Ouranos and Gaia, the Roman connection between Jupiter and Tellus Mater, and the Norse connection between Odin and Jörð. Although Odin is not exactly the same as Dyḗws Ph₂tḗr, his worship may have been influenced by an earlier supreme god who did match. However, the earth and sky pair are not the origin of the other gods, as the divine twins and Hausos were likely conceived by Dyēws alone.
Examples of similar terms are Dheu and Zonja e Dheut in Albanian, meaning Great Mother Earth and Earth Goddess, respectively. In Lithuania, the goddess of the earth is revered as Žemyna, seen as the one who brings flowers. In Zoroastrianism, there is the concept of 'earth' represented by Zām. In Latvian mythology, Zemes Māte, Mother Earth, is one of the goddesses of death. Hittite culture knows Dagan-zipas, the 'Genius of the Earth.' In Slavic belief, Mati Syra Zemlya, 'Mother Moist Earth,' is revered. Greek mythology knows Chthôn, the partner of Ouranos in the story of the Danaïds. There are also possible connections between a Thracian goddess named Zemelā (*gʰem-elā) and a Messapian goddess named Damatura (*dʰǵʰem-māter), which might be the origin of the Greek Semele and Demeter, but there is less certainty here.
Weather Gods
Perkʷunos is a god reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European god of lightning and storms. He was presumably depicted with a hammer or a similar weapon. Thunder and lightning had both destructive and fertile meanings: lightning could split rocks or trees, but it also brought fertile rain. Therefore, there was a strong association between Perkʷunos and oak trees, as oaks were most often struck by lightning. Perkʷunos was often associated with stones and wooded mountains, presumably because these forests were rich in his presence.
The motif of striking devils, demons, or wrongdoers by Perkʷunos appears in the myths of the Lithuanian Perkūnas, the Vedic Parjanya, and the Germanic Thor. It seems that these deities are relatives originating from *Perkʷunos and are limited to the European continent. There is evidence of related deities such as the Norse goddess Fjǫrgyn (the mother of Thor), the Lithuanian god Perkūnas, the Slavic god Perúnú, and the Hercynian mountains or forests in the Celtic tradition. The Albanian thunder god Perëndi is also likely related to Perkʷunos. In the Vedic tradition, the god of rain, thunder, and lightning, Parjánya, may also have a connection, although Sanskrit sound laws suggest a different form.
Additionally, there is another root * (s) tenh₂ ("thunder") that has related gods in the Germanic, Celtic, and Roman traditions, such as Thor, Taranis, Tonans (Jupiter), and keraunos (Zeus). According to some sources, these gods may have originated from an original epithet or epiclesis, similar to the Vedic Parjanya, who is also called stanayitnú- ("Thunderer"). The Roman god Mars may also be a thematic echo of Perkʷunos, as he originally also had characteristics of thunder.
Water Nymphs
Proto-Indo-European religions have various types of beautiful and sometimes dangerous water goddesses. Comparable to the Greek naiads, nymphs of freshwater. Similar motifs have been found in different cultures over a large geographical area. For example, the Vedic Apsarās often visited forest lakes, rivers, trees, and mountains and were sent by Indra to seduce men. In Ossetian mythology, Donbettyr rules over the waters and has daughters of extraordinary beauty with golden hair. In Armenian folklore, the Parik take the form of beautiful dancing women in nature.
Also in other cultures, water goddesses are depicted as seductive maidens with long golden or green hair, such as the Slavic water nymphs víly, the Albanian mountain nymphs Perit and Zana, and the Baltic nymph-like Laumes. These beings can be both beautiful and dangerous, and sometimes have interactions with men ranging from abductions to sexual relationships and brief marriages. In Breton tradition, the Korrigans are described as irresistible beings with golden hair who seduce mortal men and bring them fatal love. Other examples of water nymphs include the Norwegian Huldra, Iranian Ahuraīnīs, and Lycian Eliyana.
Drinking Water
There is also linguistic and cultural evidence indicating the sacred status of terrestrial waters, such as rivers and springs. These waters were collectively revered as "the waters" or individually honored as separate entities. The cult of fountains and rivers was likely present long before the Proto-Indo-European beliefs emerged and was widespread in their traditions.
Goddesses of Fate
It is highly likely that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed in three goddesses of fate who determined the destiny of humanity. Although these fate goddesses are not directly confirmed in the Indo-Aryan tradition, the Atharvaveda makes a comparison between fate and the weaving of a thread. In almost every other Indo-European mythology, the three fate goddesses appear.
In Hittite mythology, the Gulses are mentioned as the goddesses who determine the individual fate of humans. They are often mentioned in mythical stories along with the goddesses Papaya and Istustaya, who are described in a ritual text for the construction of a new temple while using mirrors and spindles to spin the king's life thread. In the Greek tradition, the Moirai are named as those who distribute fate, and they are also called "Spinners." Hesiod names them Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, meaning "Spinner," "Allotter," and "Unbending," respectively. Plato describes in his Republic that Clotho sings about the past, Lachesis about the present, and Atropos about the future.
In Roman legend, the Parcae are named as the three goddesses who govern the birth of children, with the names Nona, Decuma, and Morta. They are also associated with spinning fate. In Norse mythology, the Norns are described as three cosmic goddesses of fate sitting at the well of Urðr at the foot of the world tree Yggdrasil. They are often associated with the Valkyries, who are also called spinners. In Old English texts, Wyrd is mentioned as a unique force that "weaves" fate. Later texts refer to the Wyrds as a group of goddesses.
Three spinning fate goddesses are also mentioned in other cultures, such as in Celtic mythology, where seven goddesses weave the thread of fate. In Slavic traditions, Russian Rožanicy, Czech and Slovak Sudičky, Bulgarian Narenčnice or Urisnice, Polish Rodzanice, Croatian Rodjenice, Serbian Sudjenice, and Slovenian Rojenice appear as the three spinning fate goddesses. Albanian folktales speak of the Fatit, three old women who appear three days after a child's birth and determine its fate with language reminiscent of spinning.
God of Prosperity
The god of prosperity, *h₂eryo-men, is reconstructed as a deity responsible for well-being and community. He is associated with the construction and maintenance of roads or paths, as well as with healing and facilitating marriages. His name is derived from the noun *h₂eryos, referring to a "member of the own group" or someone belonging to the community. This root is also found in Indo-Iranian *árya, meaning "noble" and "hospitable," and in Celtic *aryo-, referring to a "free man."
In the Vedic tradition, the god Aryaman is often mentioned in the Vedas and is associated with social and marital bonds. In the Iranian Gāthās, the god Airyaman seems to refer to the broader tribal network or alliance and is invoked in prayers against disease, magic, and evil. In the mythical stories of the founding of the Irish nation, the hero Érimón is described as the first king of the Milesians (mythical Irish), after helping conquer the island from the Tuatha Dé Danann. He also played a role in marrying women to the Cruithnig (mythical Celtic Britons or Picts), corresponding to the marriage functions of *h₂eryo-men. Additionally, the Gaulish personal name Ariomanus should be mentioned, possibly translated as "kindly disposed," and often worn by Germanic leaders.
Drinking Water
There is also linguistic and cultural evidence indicating the sacred status of terrestrial waters, such as rivers and springs. These waters were collectively revered as "the waters" or individually honored as separate entities. The cult of fountains and rivers was likely present long before the Proto-Indo-European beliefs emerged and was widespread in their traditions.
Goddesses of Fate
It is highly likely that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed in three goddesses of fate who determined the destiny of humanity. Although these fate goddesses are not directly confirmed in the Indo-Aryan tradition, the Atharvaveda makes a comparison between fate and the weaving of a thread. In almost every other Indo-European mythology, the three fate goddesses appear.
In Hittite mythology, the Gulses are mentioned as the goddesses who determine the individual fate of humans. They are often mentioned in mythical stories along with the goddesses Papaya and Istustaya, who are described in a ritual text for the construction of a new temple while using mirrors and spindles to spin the king's life thread. In the Greek tradition, the Moirai are named as those who distribute fate, and they are also called "Spinners." Hesiod names them Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, meaning "Spinner," "Allotter," and "Unbending," respectively. Plato describes in his Republic that Clotho sings about the past, Lachesis about the present, and Atropos about the future.
In Roman legend, the Parcae are named as the three goddesses who govern the birth of children, with the names Nona, Decuma, and Morta. They are also associated with spinning fate. In Norse mythology, the Norns are described as three cosmic goddesses of fate sitting at the well of Urðr at the foot of the world tree Yggdrasil. They are often associated with the Valkyries, who are also called spinners. In Old English texts, Wyrd is mentioned as a unique force that "weaves" fate. Later texts refer to the Wyrds as a group of goddesses.
Three spinning fate goddesses are also mentioned in other cultures, such as in Celtic mythology, where seven goddesses weave the thread of fate. In Slavic traditions, Russian Rožanicy, Czech and Slovak Sudičky, Bulgarian Narenčnice or Urisnice, Polish Rodzanice, Croatian Rodjenice, Serbian Sudjenice, and Slovenian Rojenice appear as the three spinning fate goddesses. Albanian folktales speak of the Fatit, three old women who appear three days after a child's birth and determine its fate with language reminiscent of spinning.
God of Prosperity
The god of prosperity, *h₂eryo-men, is reconstructed as a deity responsible for well-being and community. He is associated with the construction and maintenance of roads or paths, as well as with healing and facilitating marriages. His name is derived from the noun *h₂eryos, referring to a "member of the own group" or someone belonging to the community. This root is also found in Indo-Iranian *árya, meaning "noble" and "hospitable," and in Celtic *aryo-, referring to a "free man."
In the Vedic tradition, the god Aryaman is often mentioned in the Vedas and is associated with social and marital bonds. In the Iranian Gāthās, the god Airyaman seems to refer to the broader tribal network or alliance and is invoked in prayers against disease, magic, and evil. In the mythical stories of the founding of the Irish nation, the hero Érimón is described as the first king of the Milesians (mythical Irish), after helping conquer the island from the Tuatha Dé Danann. He also played a role in marrying women to the Cruithnig (mythical Celtic Britons or Picts), corresponding to the marriage functions of *h₂eryo-men. Additionally, the Gaulish personal name Ariomanus should be mentioned, possibly translated as "kindly disposed," and often worn by Germanic leaders.
Drinking Water
There is also linguistic and cultural evidence indicating the sacred status of terrestrial waters, such as rivers and springs. These waters were collectively revered as "the waters" or individually honored as separate entities. The cult of fountains and rivers was likely present long before the Proto-Indo-European beliefs emerged and was widespread in their traditions.
Goddesses of Fate
It is highly likely that the Proto-Indo-Europeans believed in three goddesses of fate who determined the destiny of humanity. Although these fate goddesses are not directly confirmed in the Indo-Aryan tradition, the Atharvaveda makes a comparison between fate and the weaving of a thread. In almost every other Indo-European mythology, the three fate goddesses appear.
In Hittite mythology, the Gulses are mentioned as the goddesses who determine the individual fate of humans. They are often mentioned in mythical stories along with the goddesses Papaya and Istustaya, who are described in a ritual text for the construction of a new temple while using mirrors and spindles to spin the king's life thread. In the Greek tradition, the Moirai are named as those who distribute fate, and they are also called "Spinners." Hesiod names them Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, meaning "Spinner," "Allotter," and "Unbending," respectively. Plato describes in his Republic that Clotho sings about the past, Lachesis about the present, and Atropos about the future.
In Roman legend, the Parcae are named as the three goddesses who govern the birth of children, with the names Nona, Decuma, and Morta. They are also associated with spinning fate. In Norse mythology, the Norns are described as three cosmic goddesses of fate sitting at the well of Urðr at the foot of the world tree Yggdrasil. They are often associated with the Valkyries, who are also called spinners. In Old English texts, Wyrd is mentioned as a unique force that "weaves" fate. Later texts refer to the Wyrds as a group of goddesses.
Three spinning fate goddesses are also mentioned in other cultures, such as in Celtic mythology, where seven goddesses weave the thread of fate. In Slavic traditions, Russian Rožanicy, Czech and Slovak Sudičky, Bulgarian Narenčnice or Urisnice, Polish Rodzanice, Croatian Rodjenice, Serbian Sudjenice, and Slovenian Rojenice appear as the three spinning fate goddesses. Albanian folktales speak of the Fatit, three old women who appear three days after a child's birth and determine its fate with language reminiscent of spinning.
God of Prosperity
The god of prosperity, *h₂eryo-men, is reconstructed as a deity responsible for well-being and community. He is associated with the construction and maintenance of roads or paths, as well as with healing and facilitating marriages. His name is derived from the noun *h₂eryos, referring to a "member of the own group" or someone belonging to the community. This root is also found in Indo-Iranian *árya, meaning "noble" and "hospitable," and in Celtic *aryo-, referring to a "free man."
In the Vedic tradition, the god Aryaman is often mentioned in the Vedas and is associated with social and marital bonds. In the Iranian Gāthās, the god Airyaman seems to refer to the broader tribal network or alliance and is invoked in prayers against disease, magic, and evil. In the mythical stories of the founding of the Irish nation, the hero Érimón is described as the first king of the Milesians (mythical Irish), after helping conquer the island from the Tuatha Dé Danann. He also played a role in marrying women to the Cruithnig (mythical Celtic Britons or Picts), corresponding to the marriage functions of *h₂eryo-men. Additionally, the Gaulish personal name Ariomanus should be mentioned, possibly translated as "kindly disposed," and often worn by Germanic leaders.
Mythology
Some myths can be dated to the Proto-Indo-European period, as they contain linguistic and thematic evidence of inherited motifs. For example, a story in which a mythic figure is associated with thunder and kills a multi-headed serpent to release accumulated water currents. A creation myth involving two brothers, with one sacrificing the other to create the world. And likely the belief that the Other World was guarded by a watchdog and could only be reached by crossing a river.
There are various currents regarding possible interpretations of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European mythology and religion. The main mythologies used in comparative reconstruction include Indo-Iranian, Baltic, Roman, and Norse, often supported by evidence from Celtic, Greek, Slavic, Hittite, Armenian, Illyrian, and Albanian traditions. While there were historical contacts and interactions between Jewish communities and Indo-European peoples, especially in the diaspora, there is no direct ethnolinguistic connection between the Jews and Proto-Indo-European. Despite the relatively late nature of Viking mythology, it is also considered a significant source for comparative research, as many Icelandic texts have preserved much of Viking mythology.
Serpent-killing in myths
The myth of killing serpents is widespread in almost all Indo-European mythologies. The story typically revolves around a hero or god defeating a snake or dragon. While the details of the story may vary, there are striking similarities between different versions. The protagonist is often a thunder god or a hero associated with thunder. The snake, the hero's adversary, is usually associated with water and depicted as a multi-headed being. The myths often describe the snake as a "blocker of waters," and ultimately, the many heads of the snake are crushed by the thunder god in an epic battle, releasing previously accumulated water currents. The original story may symbolize the struggle between order and chaos.
Variations of the story appear in different mythologies, such as Hittite, Vedic, Greek, Germanic, and Slavic mythology. For instance, in Hittite mythology, the storm god Tarhunt kills the giant snake Illuyanka, while in Vedic mythology, the god Indra defeats the multi-headed snake Vritra. In Greek mythology, there is the legend of Zeus killing the hundred-headed Typhon and Heracles defeating the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra. In Germanic mythology, the god Thor kills the giant snake Jörmungandr, while in the Völsunga Saga, Sigurd defeats the dragon Fafnir. These mythical motifs also resonate in other cultures, such as Zoroastrianism, Albanian mythology, Armenian mythology, and Shinto.
The Genesis story in Judaism and Christianity can also be seen as an allegorical retelling of the serpent-killing myth. The idea of the depth or abyss from which God created the world can be interpreted as a reference to the original serpent Tiamat in Babylonian mythology.
Fire in the water
Another retold myth is the story of flames burning underwater. It portrays a divine being named *H₂epom Nepōts ("Descendant of the waters") living in water, and whose powers must be ritually obtained or controlled by a hero who is the only one able to come into contact with it. In the Rigveda, the god Apám Nápát is depicted as a form of fire residing in water. In Celtic mythology, a well belonging to the god Nechtain is said to blind anyone who looks into it. In an ancient Armenian poem, a small reed in the middle of the sea spontaneously catches fire, and the hero Vahagn emerges with fiery hair, a fiery beard, and eyes shining like suns. In a ninth-century Norse poem by the poet Thiodolf, the expression "sǣvar niþr" is used, meaning "grandson of the sea," as a metaphor for fire. Even the Greek tradition may contain references to the myth of a fire god living deep under the sea. The expression "νέποδες καλῆς Ἁλοσύδνης," meaning "descendants of the beautiful seas," is used in The Odyssey 4.404 as a nickname for seals.
The king and the maiden
The legend of the ruler and the immaculate woman tells the story of a king saved by his virgin daughter after he sees his future threatened by rebellious sons or male relatives. Virginity likely symbolizes in the myth the woman faithful only to her father, and the child is likewise only faithful to his royal grandfather. Stories of the Indian king Yayāti, saved by his virgin daughter Mādhāvi; the Roman king Numitor, saved by his chaste daughter Rhea Silvia; the Irish king Eochaid, father of the legendary queen Medb and threatened by his sons, the findemna; as well as the myth of the Norse virgin goddess Gefjun offering land to Odin, are often cited as possible remnants of an original Proto-Indo-European motif. The Irish queen Medb could be related to the Indian Mādhāvi (whose name may refer to a spring flower, rich in honey, or an intoxicating drink), both derived from the root *medʰ- ("mead, intoxicating drink").
The foundation war
The myth of the Foundation War is presented as a conflict between the first two functions (priests and warriors) and the third function (fertility), which ultimately make peace and form a fully integrated society. In the Norse Ynglingasaga, a war is described between the Æsir (led by Odin and Thor) and the Vanir (led by Freyr, Freyja, and Njörðr), which ends with the Vanir settling among the Æsir. Shortly after the mythical foundation of Rome, Romulus battles his prosperous neighbors, the Sabines, with the Romans kidnapping their women to ultimately incorporate the Sabines into the founding tribes of Rome. In Vedic mythology, the Aśvins (representing the third function as the Divine Twins) are initially blocked from accessing the heavenly power circle by Indra (the second function), but they are eventually forced to be admitted. The Trojan War can also be interpreted as a reflection of this myth, with prosperous Troy symbolizing the third function and the conquering Greeks representing the first two functions.
Binding of evil
Jaan Puhvel has noted similarities between two myths: the Norse myth in which the god Tyr puts his hand into the mouth of the wolf Fenrir while the other gods bind him with Gleipnir, but Fenrir ultimately bites off Tyr's hand when he realizes he cannot break free from the bindings, and the Iranian myth in which Jamshid saves his brother's corpse from the bowels of Ahriman by putting his hand into Ahriman's anus and pulling the corpse out, after which his hand becomes infected with leprosy. In both stories, an authority figure forces the malevolent entity into submission by putting his hand into the creature's opening (the mouth in Fenrir's case, the anus in Ahriman's case) and losing or infecting his hand in the process. Although Fenrir and Ahriman fulfill different roles in their respective mythological traditions and are not considered remnants of a Proto-Indo-European "evil god," it is clear that the "binding myth" has its origins dating back to the Proto-Indo-European era.