We all know that modern Halloween has been imported from America and that this holiday has its origins in the Irish Samhain. But what does this mean in a broader Indo-European context? What do these celebrations tell us about our form of ancestor veneration? In this blog, we aim to place Samhain, the predecessor of Halloween, in a broader context in an accessible way.
Indo-European ancestor veneration
Indo-European paganism is a dharmic nature religion; we speak of dharmic because there were prescriptions and rules that upheld and supported the cosmic order.
In this, ancestors play an important role. For thousands of years, the Proto-Indo-European peoples buried high-ranking deceased individuals in burial mounds. In the steppes, these mounds were visible from afar. They were sacred places that emphasized the status of the ancestor. Tribes, which were predominantly nomadic, regularly returned to these sites to offer sacrifices in honor of their ancestors. The individuals buried in these mounds were also a personification of the semi-mythological ancestors of the tribe. Their heroic deeds and achievements were recounted and honored for generations. Their actions were immortalized in the bardic oral traditions of the people. Peoples of Indo-European descent, such as the Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts, Balto-Slavs, Indo-Iranians, and Indo-Aryans, maintained this tradition.
In this context, we must view the Germanic álfablót, the Celtic Samhain, and the Slavic Dziady.
All these celebrations have one thing in common: the remembrance of deceased ancestors. These can be both one's own ancestors and the mythological ancestors of the tribe or clan. Ancestor veneration is a very important practice in Indo-European cultures. It connects the people and creates a bond of honor and pride.
What is Samhain?
Samhain is a Celtic festival that begins on the evening of October 31. The Celtic day began at sunset, not sunrise as it does today. The celebration marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter.
The Gallic Coligny calendar from the 1st century refers to the month of samonios, a term that scholars link to the word Samhain. Some Neolithic passage tombs in Great Britain and Ireland are aligned with the sunrise at the time of Samhain, which may indicate a much older origin of this festival.
October 31 falls roughly halfway between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice. The light season transitions into the dark season, with winter symbolizing death. After Samhain, the Wild Hunt begins, leading to Yule (midwinter), and then light (life) returns to the earth.
During Samhain, people honored their ancestors and made offerings at their graves. These could be one's own ancestors or the semi-mythological ancestors of the tribe. This period was seen as a time when the veil between the world of the living and the dead (the Otherworld) is thin, allowing the souls of the deceased to come closer.
The night of Samhain was not without danger. Because the world of the dead was right next to the world of the living, traveling between the two worlds was easier. In Old Irish mythology, it is clear that there were monsters and malevolent spirits living in the underworld that could cross over into the world of the living during this night.
Samhain in Old Irish Mythology
Samhain is frequently mentioned in Irish manuscripts and is connected to important events in Irish mythology. These stories were recorded between the 9th and 13th centuries by Christian monks, but they were likely transmitted orally for hundreds of years before that. Often, the texts known today are copies of earlier works.
From this literature, we can infer that feasts and large gatherings took place. * Tochmarc Emire* (10th century) names Samhain as the first of the four seasonal festivals. According to Echtra Cormaic (12th century), the High King of Ireland (ard rí na hÉrenn) held the feast of Tara every seventh Samhain, during which he established new rules, laws, and obligations. The feast was also a time when part of the harvest had to be given to their lord, as described in an extreme version in Lebor Gabála Érenn (12th century).
Such gatherings, where the heroes of Ireland came together to feast, drink, and organize contests, were a popular setting in the stories, as disputes could easily arise, love could be sealed, and all heroes would be present in their full glory.
It was a time of peace. In Táin Bó Cúailnge (12th century), the cattle raid on Ulster begins on Samhain, a day when no one expects war.
During Samhain, beings from the Otherworld entered the human world, as recounted in Macgnímartha Finn (12th century) and Acallam na Senórach (early 13th century). Burial mounds were seen as gateways to the Otherworld. In the Dinnshenchas of Móin Gai Glais, Cúldub kills someone on Samhain and is killed in revenge by a man named Gae Glas. In Dunaire Finn, while Samhain is not mentioned, Cúldub emerges from a burial mound to steal cattle, and the hero Fionn pursues him. He throws a spear at Cúldub, who stumbles into the burial mound. A woman slams the door to the burial mound shut, trapping Fionn's thumb. He puts it in his mouth to relieve the pain. Because his thumb was in the Otherworld, Fionn gains great wisdom, possibly referencing knowledge of the ancestors.
From Echtra Neraí (10th century) and Togail Bruidne Dá Derga (11th century), it is clear that Samhain was associated with death, not just of individuals but of entire populations. In some versions of the former story, Nera stays a long time in the Otherworld and convinces its rulers of his identity by bringing summer flowers as proof.
How a Samhain Celebration Was Held?
How exactly the ancestors celebrated Samhain remains unclear. However, by studying Old Irish texts, Indo-European moral expressions, Old Irish law, and early modern celebrations, we can make a reconstruction.
Unlike the Germanic and Scandinavian álfablót, it is likely that the entire community participated in one large, central celebration of Samhain, and the festivity did not remain confined to the domestic sphere. It is possible that a larger Samhain festival was held once every few years compared to the usual celebrations.
Men and women would wash themselves and put on their finest clothing to present themselves well. They gathered at a central location, where they were received by the king (rí) or his nobility (de flaith). Hospitality and generosity were extremely important to uphold the king's status. If he did not receive his guests according to their status, conflicts could arise, and his good name could be tarnished. The guests were served food, and gifts may have been exchanged, or this might have been the moment when clients offered tributes to their lord.
Offerings were made to the dead, both to one's own deceased family members and to mythological ancestors. The offering was likely performed by the druid and by the king, who also held a spiritual role. This emphasized and confirmed the bond between ancestors, law, beauty, and tribe (túath).
As night fell, two large fires were lit. Tribe members and cattle (especially cattle) were likely led between the fires as a form of ritual purification. In early modern times, all fires were first extinguished before being reignited at the central bonfire.
The bards recounted stories and sang songs about the heroic deeds of the ancestors. This was the greatest gift one could give to the dead: eternal glory through the telling of their story. Competitions, such as spear throwing and horse riding, were also held.
The festivities were also an opportunity to make business arrangements, such as dividing grazing land for the following year. It is possible that the king, either the rí túaithe (king of the tribe) or the high king (ard rí), read new laws to the assembled revelers. He was likely supported in this by his judges (brithemna), as even the king was not above the law.
Such gatherings of the tribe were also where young people could meet and form connections that would eventually lead to marriages. Thus, the feast of the dead also influenced new life. The ritual offerings must have made a strong impression on the children of the clan.
They were likely entertained on the evening of Samhain with stories about terrifying monsters that crossed over from the Otherworld to the world of the living, and about the magic present in the burial mounds. Soon, between Samhain and Yule, they would have to embark on an adventure themselves, to visit the dead in their burial mounds and bring back offerings as proof.
Reconstruction
We have assembled the outfits of an Old Irish man and woman from the early 5th century AD. The characters in this blog, whom we have named Conchobar and Gráinne, hold the status of bóaire, or free farmer. Conchobar owns a piece of land and, together with his neighbor, possesses a team of oxen to plow their fields. Additionally, Conchobar has livestock, including six cows, fifteen sheep, and a beehive.
They lived just before the introduction of Christianity. There are no written sources from this period, but we can reconstruct much based on later texts.
The couple is about to participate in the Samhain ritual held communally within the túath (clan/tribe) and led by the king of the túath (rí túaithe).
Like other clan members, they have been looking forward to this for the entire month. They have gathered their offerings, such as a portion of their grain harvest, honey from their beehives, butter, or a piece of pork. Higher-ranking individuals would make more elaborate offerings, possibly a whole (white) bull, a horse, and mead.
Click here for the composition of Conchobar (man)
Like her husband, Gráinne works on the farm, where they share the responsibilities of land management. The period between Imbolc and Samhain is one of intense work in the fields, reflecting the cyclical nature of agricultural life in Old Irish society. However, after Samhain, the quiet, dead winter begins—a time for rest and reflection.
During the offering ritual, Gráinne plays an important role by making offerings to the ancestors on behalf of her family. While we cannot say with certainty whether, in Old Irish Celtic paganism, women were primarily seen as the intermediaries between the world of mortals and the gods, as in Germanic paganism, we can assume that parallels exist. Since both religions are likely branches of Indo-European paganism, we expect that women in Old Irish religious practice also played an essential role in rituals and communication with the divine. Her husband, Conchobar, on the other hand, was the patriarch of the family.
Drinking Horn
During the Samhain ritual, Gráinne had to make offerings in the proper manner. For this, she used a drinking horn, a traditional object made from cattle. Cattle held a sacred status among the Indo-European peoples, including the Celts. This is reflected in many epic Old Irish tales about cattle raids.
In other Indo-European cultures, such as those of the Greeks and Romans, a similar ritual horn was called a rhyton. Drinking horns had strong ritual significance in these societies and were often used during sacrificial ceremonies. These objects were not always made from animal horns; sometimes the Romans, Germans, and Vikings even crafted drinking horns from materials like glass. This underscores the importance and symbolic power of the drinking horn in religious ceremonies and offerings.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/drinking-horn-several-sizes.html
Scarf/Headscarf
During the ritual, Gráinne wears a scarf or headscarf, an important sign that she is addressing the gods. Wearing such head coverings was not uncommon in ancient Rome and among the Greeks; both men and women used scarves and headscarves as part of their religious and cultural practices.
This tradition of covering the head was later adopted by Abrahamic religions, where it is often associated with chastity and modesty. In Old Irish society, however, wearing a scarf or headscarf during rituals was not related to a woman's chastity. Instead, it symbolized a deeper spiritual connection and respect for the gods.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/scarf-emil-brown.html
Underskirt and Dress (léine)
The difference between an early medieval dress and a long tunic is minimal. Therefore, the Gaelic Irish referred to both a dress and a tunic as a léine. Unlike later styles, these garments did not have bag-like sleeves and were simple in design. An example of a fairly simple léine is Gráinne's, a style that was common among the ordinary population. The luxury and refinement of a léine were directly related to the social status of the wearer: the more luxurious the fabric and finishing, the wealthier the person wearing it. The Old Irish word "léine" still exists in modern Gaelic, where the word for T-shirt is T-léine.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/dress-laga-natural.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-dress-helga-blue-grey-blue.html
Chaperon
Gráinne wears a chaperon. This is a commonly used garment that was worn throughout Europe. An original from the 4th century has been found, for example, on the Orkney Islands near Scotland.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/chaperon-herringbone-motif-knud-olive-grey.html
Cloak (brath)
The most important garment in Old Irish Gaelic culture was the brat, a large cloak worn over the léine. The brat could be worn in various ways, depending on the situation and the needs of the wearer. When Gráinne worked in the fields, she would tuck the brat under her belt, allowing her to easily loosen it from her neck and wear it around her waist in warm weather. This ease of use made the brat a multifunctional garment. This practice later gave rise to the Scottish belted plaid, a precursor to the well-known Scottish kilt. This illustrates how the clothing of Old Irish culture laid the foundation for later Celtic attire in Scotland.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/cloak-hibernus-grey.html
Footwear
Gráinne likely did not wear footwear. However, if she had worn shoes, they would have been turning shoes.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-shoes-alva.html
Belt, Sickle, Utility Knife, Scissors
Gráinne wears a belt that features a belt loop. It is tied around the waist, which is a method that predates belt buckles. Attached to the belt, Gráinne carries various tools, such as a sickle, utility knife, and scissors. These items are for everyday use.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/leather-belt-with-ring-buckle-brown-split-leather.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/hand-forged-sickle.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/celtic-knife-with-bird-motif.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-scissors.html
Early Medieval Lantern
Because the ritual takes place in the evening, Gráinne carries a lantern for illumination.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/early-medieval-lantern.html
