In this blog, we bring together three different European shamans. But before we do so, we will take a closer look at shamanism in a European context and address some pitfalls and possibilities.
Shamanism and Appropriation
The word "shaman" is derived from the Russian word "шаман" (šamán), which, in turn, comes from the word "samān" in the Tungusic language Evenki. During the colonial era, Western colonizers labeled every native "pagan" priest they encountered as a shaman. This led to the term becoming a catch-all phrase with a negative connotation. Additionally, it is likely that no indigenous people ever called their spiritual practitioners or priests "shamans." The word shaman was also not used in our pagan traditions and has no Proto-Indo-European origin.
Until recently, almost every European was Christian (practicing or not). Christianity largely shapes our laws and social norms. Currently, Europe is witnessing a significant search for our original identity (a pagan renaissance).
In this search, we run the risk of projecting our modern worldview and selecting cultures and traditions we idealize. In doing so, we may unintentionally adopt traditions from native cultures outside of Europe, subsequently claiming them as European. This is known as appropriation.
It is important to avoid this to prevent offending native peoples and cultures with nature religions, who have often been victims of modern colonialism.
What is a Shaman
A shaman is a mediator between the earthly world and the spirit world through altered states of consciousness. There are various characteristics of shamanism, which differ around the world. Below is a general summary. The shaman is referred to as he/him, but this can also be read as she/her.
The cosmic regions of heaven, earth, and the underworld are interconnected by a central axis: the world tree, tree of life, or axis mundi. The origin of the world tree—Greek-Roman axis mundi, Norse Yggdrasil, Vedic Ashvattha, Old Persian Gaokerena—is a mystery that warrants its own discussion, especially since the tree of life appears in both Indo-European and non-Indo-European mythologies.
Through entering a state of ecstasy, the soul of the shaman leaves the body without dying. He can then travel along the tree of life to visit the different cosmic regions. This is done for various purposes, such as healing, divination, gaining knowledge, and guiding the souls of the deceased to the underworld. This trance state is one of the essential traits of a shaman.
The shaman is both a magician and healer, but not every magician or medicine man is a shaman. He is a master of fire, allowing him to transform from "human" to "spirit." An example is the hallucinogenic herbs found in the grave of the völva of Fyrkat.
The shaman’s initial journeys are often marked by the disintegration or tearing apart of his body and the regrowth of his organs and entrails. In the tradition of the Yakuts of Northern Siberia, the shaman is carried to the tree of life by a giant eagle. Once matured, he is torn apart by malevolent spirits and devoured, only to be rebuilt by the bird; similar motifs are found throughout Northern Asia. The eagle is said to be the father of the first shaman or his teacher.
Themes of mastery over fire, regeneration, and eagles also appear in the Greek myth of the titan Prometheus, who stole the gods’ fire and gave it to humanity. As punishment, he was chained in Tartarus, the underworld, where an eagle would devour his liver by day, which would regenerate by night.
Shamans also have other spiritual helpers, appearing as animals such as bears, wolves, deer, hares, or birds, including geese, eagles, owls, and ravens, especially among Siberian and Altaic shamans.
The Development of European Pagan Nature Religion
Hunter-Gatherers
In the late Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, from around 15,000 years ago, people lived as hunter-gatherers. They were nomadic and, later, semi-nomadic in some areas. They lived in small groups of about 10-12 adults, plus children. They primarily obtained food by hunting, fishing, and foraging. They also cultivated a few crops and kept some domesticated animals. This lifestyle required large tracts of land for a relatively small group of people.
They lived with nature, as part of nature itself. To avoid starvation, they needed to understand the seasons, weather, animals, and landscapes deeply. They likely understood nature instinctively far better than we modern humans do. Due to this connection, their worldview was strongly animistic, assuming that natural objects, phenomena, and even places possessed a spiritual essence or consciousness.
Their harsh life demanded a highly pragmatic approach, and this extended to their religion as well. They saw spirituality and magic within nature and the seasons. Their environment was the foundation of their gods, who played an important role in the cycles of nature and in the cycle of life and death. The gods who gave life also brought death.
Society was non-hierarchical, with everyone considered equal, including men and women. Sharing was essential. It is likely they did not have a hierarchical structure among their gods either. The spirits or gods lived alongside them, helping them to understand nature and to find humanity’s place within it. Hunter-gatherers also practiced sacrificial offerings to the gods and included grave goods with the dead.
The central elements of hunter-gatherer religion were:
Animism
Belief in an afterlife
Shamanism
Understanding of nature and seasons
This worldview strongly resembles that of hunter-gatherers around the world, including those who still live a similar lifestyle today. Shamanism served as a catalyst, bridging the connection to the gods and spirit forces.
Early European Farmers
From around 8,000-7,500 BCE, Early European Farmers (EEF), a branch of the Anatolian Neolithic Farmers (ANF), began to populate Europe.
One group of farmers migrated north from the Danube region. They specialized in raising livestock and growing emmer wheat, einkorn, and peas on loess soil, moving from one loess region to another. This group is known today as the Linear Pottery culture, named after the linear decorations on their pottery.
Another group of farmers spread westward along the Mediterranean, reaching the Balkans, Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula. This is known as the Cardial-Impressed culture, as they stamped their pottery with cockle shells (Cardium edulis).
In the area where farmers first entered Europe, in the fertile Danube Valley, communities became established, creating what is often called Old Europe. This society developed early urban settlements far larger than any others worldwide at that time. It is known for its many ceramic figurines of women, which were once interpreted as a sign of a matriarchal Neolithic society, though there is insufficient evidence to confirm this. Old Europe produced high-quality ceramics, requiring ovens capable of reaching high temperatures, leading to the unique skill of copper smelting and gold working.
Hunter-gatherers and early farmers coexisted for thousands of years. In Central and Western Europe, hunter-gatherers gradually merged into farming communities between 5,000 and 4,500 BCE. This can be observed in the DNA of later Neolithic populations. In some regions, like Scandinavia and the Baltic area, hunter-gatherers maintained their lifestyle longer before eventually integrating into farming societies.
The worldview of Neolithic farmers differed significantly from that of hunter-gatherers. Their primary livelihood centered on crop cultivation and livestock raising. They built boats to navigate the coasts of Europe and constructed large monuments like Stonehenge. They developed a hierarchical society, which was reflected in their religion.
The ritual calendar of Neolithic life revolved around the harvest; people of the time worshiped grain-oriented deities, prayed and made offerings for bountiful harvests, and held festivals during the harvest season.
An aristocracy emerged, taking a leading role in religious practices. Shamanism likely became more exclusive to the elite, unlike in the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, when a relatively large portion of the population could practice it.
Neolithic farmers were also animistic, viewing nature as the source of their religion. They decorated their temples with images of snakes, birds, and lions and honored seasonal changes (equinoxes). They created Venus figurines, possibly continuing a tradition from the Paleolithic. Besides mother goddess figurines, votive figurines with phallic symbols and in the shape of animals have also been found, though to a lesser extent.
Central elements of the Neolithic farmers' religion included:
Animism
Belief in an afterlife
Shamanism
Understanding of the universe
Understanding of the seasons
Ancestors
Gods
In contrast to hunter-gatherers, they likely believed that gods and ancestors could have a spiritual influence on earthly life.
Western Steppe Herders (Proto-Indo-European)
The Western Steppe Herders (WSH), who spoke the earliest version of the Indo-European language, settled in Europe around 3,500 BCE. They may have been driven from the Pontic steppes into Europe and Asia by climate changes, and they had learned herding from their western neighbors, Old Europe of the Copper Age, mentioned above.
This Yamnaya population was semi-nomadic, moving with their herds from grassland to grassland. They rode horses, were familiar with copper like the Neolithic farmers, and were already experimenting with bronze. Although they cultivated crops, livestock (especially cattle) was their primary source of sustenance. This society was mobile, hierarchical, and more violent than the Neolithic farmers' society—after all, everything could be taken from you in a single night.
Proto-Indo-European society was strongly oath-bound. Herders and warriors pledged loyalty to greater warriors and were part of war bands that raided cattle from enemy tribes and protected their own. On the vast plains of the steppes, it was crucial to be able to trust one another in case of cattle raids or accidents. Hospitality was also of fundamental importance.
Their social structure differed greatly from that of Neolithic farmers, and so did their religion. The Western Steppe Herders were strongly dharmic, and their nature religion and moral beliefs reflected this.
In dharma, each individual has moral and ethical duties and responsibilities based on universal laws and order that govern nature and human existence.
Over the centuries, the Western Steppe Herders intermingled with Neolithic farmers, who had already mixed with the hunter-gatherers of Europe. Sometimes this mixing occurred violently, and sometimes it happened more peacefully with the local populations. How these peoples became one in various regions remains a topic of research and debate.
These Indo-European people thus spread throughout Europe, as well as into Persia and India. Their culture became a foundational influence for the Celtic and Germanic tribes, Vikings, Romans and Greeks, Balto-Slavs, Persians, and Vedic peoples.
We can derive information about the Indo-European religion in two ways: by reconstructing the Proto-Indo-European language based on its daughter languages (comparative and historical linguistics) and by comparing the religions of their descendant peoples.
In the Religion of the Western Steppe Herders, the Central Beliefs Included:
Nature
Hierarchical gods
Animism
'Dharma'
Monuments, such as burial mounds
Ancestors
They likely also believed that the gods and their ancestors could have a spiritual influence on earthly life.
Different, Yet the Same?
The social structures of the aforementioned groups were fundamentally different. However, their religions probably resembled each other greatly and influenced one another. There was no massive invasion where one culture wiped out the other. The Neolithic farmers adopted customs from the hunter-gatherers, and the Western Steppe Herders adopted customs from the Neolithic farmers. All three cultures merged, with Indo-European culture becoming the most dominant.
All three made distinctions between the worldly and the spiritual. They were all strongly animistic and expressed this by treating places in nature as sacred and worshipping certain animals for their special qualities.
They observed that trees and crops grew from seeds planted in the ground. Naturally, they buried their deceased relatives, believing that their souls would regrow. They made sacrifices and included grave goods in burials.
They understood seasonal changes, recognizing the magical transformations of nature. They likely knew the stars and worshipped the moon and the sun.
Since the Paleolithic, people have created figurines of women with exaggerated sexual features. This tradition continued into the Bronze Age. They revered women for their fertility and protection. They also revered the father who gave life to Mother Earth, from whom all life originates. It’s likely that the Neolithic farmers and the Steppe Herders shared a similar creation story.
European Shamanism
Today, the terms priest and shaman are often used interchangeably in pagan contexts, though this is not entirely accurate. Both can help a person follow the path of their fate or achieve their life’s purpose.
A shaman is someone who “sees spiritually,” seeking to learn from cosmic forces by making direct contact with them. The shaman has no mythological dogma, no book, and no consistent way of expression. The shaman helps people by ensuring they live in harmony with the spiritual and natural worlds around them. The shaman does not always hold an influential social role.
The priest, by contrast, holds a fixed position within society. The high priest was often the king, emperor, or tribal leader. The priest uses mythology and societal beliefs as a frame of reference.
The question of whether Indo-European paganism was shamanistic is not easily answered.
Arguments in Favor
All three cultures that formed the basis of Indo-European paganism originally followed an animistic nature religion, traces of which are still visible in modern times. Comparative linguistics also shows that the names of Indo-European gods and goddesses have their roots in an animistic nature religion.
When we look at (modern) hunter-gatherer tribes around the world, we see that they are almost always shamanistic.
Indo-European gods, such as the Norse god Odin, who sacrificed himself for knowledge, and the Greek titan Prometheus, have mythological traits that can be seen as shamanistic.
Many Indo-European religions have an equivalent of a tree of life.
Priests made prophecies, practiced magic, and worshipped the gods through ecstatic states in ways that could be considered shamanistic.
Arguments against
The pantheon and mythologies of the later Indo-European peoples are so complex that they sharply contrast with the pragmatic, animistic nature religions.
Religion became highly institutionalized, with established dogma and fixed rituals that had to be performed in specific ways.
Thus, one may no longer speak of shamanism but rather of a priestly class. Alternatively, the early Indo-European peoples may have been shamanistic, but this changed as they settled permanently in certain regions.
There is little consistent evidence for a uniform form of shamanism, and therefore caution should be taken when applying the concept of "shamanism." Experiencing ecstasy during a ritual does not automatically make a priest(ess) a shaman. Nor does a spiritual journey alone. There is no evidence for a universal pattern in shamanistic practices or expressions. Witchcraft also cannot be directly linked to shamanism.
We leave it up to you to decide whether or not to call Indo-European paganism shamanistic.
Composition of Shamans
In this blog, we have created various interpretations of what we consider a European shaman. We borrowed as little as possible from non-European cultures and relied on visual and textual sources. However, these compositions are not 100% reconstructions of historical outfits; there is simply not enough evidence. Traditionally, the shaman’s clothing served as a tool for spiritual journeys, and several sources on pagan historical rituals show clear signs of this. This concept was our foundation for these shaman outfits.
Shaman Star Carr
In this composition, we are not aiming for a 100% historical reconstruction of a Mesolithic shaman. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age lasted in Europe from approximately 10,000 to 5,000 BCE.
Here, we aim to bridge what was historically worn with what is practical today, inspired by the beautiful shamanistic headdresses from England's Star Carr, dating to around 9,000 BCE.
Antler Headdress
At Star Carr, 21 deer skulls were found that had been modified to be used as headdresses. Similar antler headdresses have also been found in other parts of Europe, such as the antlers from Biesdorf in Germany.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/skull-red-deer-cernunnos.html
Fur Cloak
Cave paintings in a grotto near Addaura in Sicily depict a Mesolithic sacrificial ritual. In this scene, shamans are performing a human sacrifice. They are naked and wearing masks, some shaped like bird heads, while dancing. The painting also shows wild animals grazing in herds.
Human sacrifice was likely a desperate act, performed during disasters—perhaps in this case, when game animals had moved away, leaving the tribe without food.
This cave painting suggests that both men and women could be shamans in the Mesolithic. We see shamans from Sicily to Great Britain wearing ritual masks, and, apart from their spiritual masks, sometimes performing rituals naked.
The Venus figurines suggest that the mother goddess was particularly revered during the Stone Age. Thus, it is possible that women primarily served as intermediaries with the divine, though this cannot be stated with certainty.
In this composition, we have dressed the model in a fur cloak. However, it would be plausible for the ritual to be performed with bare breasts or even entirely naked.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/pagan/buy-animal-hides/
Skirt
We chose a green skirt, as this color directly symbolizes nature.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/medieval-skirt-konstanze-green.html
If you want a more Mesolithic look, you could opt for an entirely leather skirt, as wool or other fabrics were not yet in use.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/leather-skirt-nuala-light-brown.html
Over the green skirt, we added a fur overskirt. Both the fur cloak and fur overskirt emphasize the idea that the shaman’s clothing serves as an instrument for the spiritual journey.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/karya-fur-skirt-with-dragon-brown-120292932.html
Bare Feet
Tacitus described Germanic priestesses as being barefoot during divinations. This makes sense, as it allows the priestess or shaman to make direct contact with the earth (Mother Earth).
Pouches
We equipped the shaman with two pouches. These would be practical for carrying objects or herbs to be used during the ritual.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-bag-avaldsnes-brown.html
Odinistic Ritual
The second shaman is inspired by the Odinistic spear-dance ritual, a ceremony invoking Odin or Wodan. Images of "Spear Dancers" frequently appear on Germanic artifacts such as buckles and helmets, depicting dancers wearing headdresses interpreted as Odin’s ravens, Huginn and Muninn. One of the oldest examples of this dance is the sword dancers of Flimlingoje in Denmark, shown on 3rd-century silver foils. Similar scenes are found on artifacts like the Gallehus horns and the Torslunda plates. Tacitus may have described a Germanic dance tradition involving young men moving between swords. This ritual is linked to Berserkers, Wolf Warriors, and Proto-Indo-European war rituals, and it can be seen as a shamanistic ritual since Odin himself performed such practices in mythology.
Belt
The tradition of the horned spear dancer is likely closely connected to the Indo-European Kóryos ritual (war bands). The belt symbolizes the bond between a member of the Kóryos and his brothers-in-arms.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/anglo-saxon-belt-sutton-hoo.html
Trousers
In this setup, we have based the outfit on a Germanic horned spear dancer. That's why we chose the Germanic Thorsberg trousers.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/thorsberg-hose-fenris-brown.html
Schoesd
For the footwear, we opted for Oseberg boots.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-boots-oseberg.html
Horns (ravens)
The horns represent the ravens of Odin/Wodan. For this, we used a wooden torc and attached it to a headband.
Viking völva
The third shaman we have created is an Old Norse völva. These seeresses were part of pre-Christian shamanistic traditions and held an important position in the Germanic and later Viking society.
The völva was known for her ability to predict the future and connect with the spirit world. Völvas performed rituals, often in a trance state, and used magical objects such as a staff to enhance their powers. They played a significant role in the pre-Christian religion of the Vikings, offering counsel to both common people and leaders. After the Christianization of Scandinavia, their influence gradually declined. It is possible that the practices of the völva were later used by Christianity as an excuse for witch burnings.
Underdress
This völva wears an underdress. An underdress was a very important garment in the Middle Ages. It helped keep the outer dress clean for longer, reducing the need for frequent washing and preserving its color.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/dress-laga-natural.html
Dress
Tacitus mentioned that Germanic priestesses always wore white dresses. White symbolizes virginity and purity. White oxen and horses were especially offered to the gods or observed for divination. In this outfit, the völva wears a white dress with embroidery, chosen to reflect her wealth and status.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-dress-lagertha-natural-blue.html
Footwear
Tacitus mentioned that Germanic priestesses performed their rituals barefoot. This makes sense, as the völva's contact with the earth symbolizes Mother Earth (Jörð) or Freya.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-shoes-knut.html
Hangeroc
The völva wears a luxurious hangeroc. The apron dress was fastened to the main dress with brooches. It provided extra warmth and protection but was primarily a status symbol, often richly embroidered. In this ensemble, the völva wears a blue apron dress with decorative embroidery.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/hangeroc-alva-blue.html
Brooches and Jewelry
Over the apron dress, this völva wears brooches. Brooches were an important status symbol for Viking women. The jewelry and objects attached to these brooches were a significant part of their wealth.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-turtle-brooch-birka-grave-860.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-jewelry-divider-oeland.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/necklace-birka.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/gotland-viking-mountain-crystal-l-silvered.html
Personal Care
Often, small objects like combs or nail care sets were attached to the brooches. These items could be ornately decorated. The gods (cosmos) represented beauty and order, so it was essential to approach them clean and well-groomed. Being clean and wearing fine clothing were important before participating in rituals. Ritual washings were common; the Christian practices of baptism and holy water were derived from this tradition. Medieval sources mention that Viking men washed themselves more frequently than average, a practice still observable among Hindus in India today.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/pick-birka.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-nail-cleaner-birka-grave-660.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/birka-ears-poon-grave-523.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/bronze-viking-comb-ringerike-style.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/jewelry-hook-pointy.html
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-necklace-bronze.html
Magic Staff
The magic staff was the most distinctive item of the völva. It is still unclear exactly how völvas used their staffs, but it is believed they are related to seiðr (magic). For us, the staff symbolizes nature, which is the origin and core of our Indo-European pagan religion. Many völva graves contained iron staffs.
Viking Knife
Knives were primarily used as practical tools. However, in the context of the völva, knives could also be used for blood sacrifices (blót). Animals were ritually slaughtered, and their entrails were examined for irregularities or signs, which the völva could use for divination.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-knife-9th-10th-century-gotland-type.html
Bowl, Blót Boli
In the blót boli, liquid offerings were made to the gods. These bowls could be richly decorated. The gods rule over the cosmos, which represents order and beauty; hence, beautiful objects were important. This luxurious blót boli gets its name from the blood of sacrificed animals presented in it. However, milk or even mead, considered more luxurious than an animal sacrifice, could also be offered to the gods using the blót boli.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-cup-from-fejoe-silvered.html
Torque, Oath Ring
The torque has a Proto-Indo-European origin. Torques, oath rings, and upper arm bands were used to swear oaths. (The Proto-Indo-European society was a culture strongly bound by oaths.) Celtic warriors are often depicted wearing a torque. Although luxurious golden torques have been found, the concept remains the same with wooden or iron torques. The Celts, Vikings, Romans, and Indo-Iranians all wore torques.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-torque-with-dragon-heads.html
Viking Pouch and Belt
The völva carries a Viking pouch on her belt, which could be used to store medicinal herbs or substances that helped her enter a trance and embark on her spiritual journey.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/viking-bag-birka-deluxe.html
Viking Jewelry
In addition to the brooches and attached items, this völva also wears Viking bracelets. Bracelets could be used as a form of currency.
https://www.celticwebmerchant.com/en/10th-century-rusvik-bracelet.html