We all know that modern Halloween has its origins in America and that this celebration stems from the Irish Samhain. But what does this mean in a broader Indo-European context? What do these festivals reveal about our form of ancestor worship? In this blog, we aim to place the álfablót, the Germanic/Viking equivalent, in a more accessible broader context.
Indo-European ancestor worship
Indo-European paganism is a dharmic nature religion; we refer to it as dharmic because there were prescriptions and rules that maintained and supported the cosmic order.
In this context, ancestors play an important role. For thousands of years, the Proto-Indo-European peoples buried high-ranking deceased individuals in burial mounds. In the steppes, these mounds were visible from afar. They were sacred places that emphasized the status of the ancestor. Tribes, which were predominantly nomadic, would regularly return to these sites to offer sacrifices in honor of their ancestors. The individuals laid to rest in these burial mounds were also a personification of the semi-mythological ancestors of the tribe. Their heroic deeds and accomplishments were passed down and revered for generations. Their actions were immortalized in the bardic oral traditions of the people. Peoples of Indo-European descent, such as the Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts, Balto-Slavs, Indo-Iranians, and Indo-Aryans upheld this tradition.
In this context, we should view the Germanic álfablót, the Celtic Samhain, and the Slavic Dziady.
All these festivals have one thing in common: the commemoration of deceased ancestors. These can be both one’s own ancestors and the mythological ancestors of the tribe or clan. Ancestor worship is a very important practice in Indo-European cultures. It connects the people and creates a bond of honor and pride.
Indo-European Halloween
Virtually all Indo-European cultures have holidays around May 1, midsummer, October 31, and midwinter. The pagan festivals that fall in between vary among different Indo-European cultures.
The Celts celebrated Samhain. In ancient Germania and Scandinavia, they likely celebrated Álfablót, literally: elf sacrifice.
What are elves?
The Dutch word "elf," and the English "elf," is derived from the Proto-Germanic *albiz. This likely comes from the Proto-Indo-European *h₂elbʰós, meaning "white." In this way, it is distantly related to the Latin albus, meaning "white," and the Proto-Slavic *ȏlbǭdь, meaning "swan." The Proto-Germanic word presumably originally meant "white," possibly as a euphemism.
The first to use the term "elf" in written sources were the Anglo-Saxons, particularly in medical texts such as Wið færstice and Bald's Leechbook. It was believed that elves could cause illness in both people and livestock. This often manifested as sharp internal pains and psychological issues. This belief persisted during the Middle English period.
The Anglo-Saxons thought that elves used magical weapons to cause diseases, but they are also associated with a form of magic referred to as sīden and sīdsa, similar to the Old Norse seiðr.
The Prose Edda from the 13th century tells of the dökkálfar and ljósálfar, dark and light elves. The ljósálfar live in Álfheimr or Ljósálfheimr, a realm often described as bright, airy, and beautiful. This was one of the nine worlds in Norse cosmology. The ljósálfar are described as beings that radiate light and beauty. Although the Edda itself does not provide many details about specific deeds or characters among the ljósálfar, they are often assumed to have brought positive energy and happiness.
The dökkálfar lived underground and were pitch black. They may have been the basis for later dwarves.
In the Poetic Edda, the poem Völundarkviða is about Völundr, the álfa ljóði, "prince of the elves." Interestingly, this text is likely influenced by Old English poetry.
The smith-artist Völundr and his two brothers are visited by three supernatural women in the form of swans, possibly valkyries. They marry, and after nine years, the women depart. When his brothers go searching for the women, Völundr is captured by the neighboring king Níðuðr, who cuts his tendons to keep him captive. Through cunning, Völundr manages to take revenge and escape.
Elves are often mentioned in the alliterative expression Æsir ok Álfar ("Æsir and elves"), which was a fixed poetic formula used in blessings and oath formulas, for example. The Æsir were the main group of Scandinavian gods, alongside the Vanir. Snorri Sturluson writes in the Poetic Edda that Freyr, one of the Vanir, received the elven realm Álfheimr. Thus, the Álfar may have been his subjects, Vanir, or lesser gods. In any case, they were closely associated with the Æsir.
This connection to the gods is also evident in the Old English poem Wið færstice and in Germanic personal names. In skaldic poetry, the word elf is sometimes used in the same way as terms for gods.
Völundr the lame smith has parallels with the Greek/Roman god Hephaestus. The Ugaritic pantheon, not Indo-European but influenced by Hittite religion, also includes such a figure, the divine craftsman Kothar-wa-Khasis.
In the Irish tale Serglige Con Culaind, the hero Cú Chulainn injures a bird from the Otherworld and subsequently falls ill. This resembles Anglo-Saxon magic of sīden/sīdsa, and it is interesting that here too the women from the Otherworld transform into waterfowl. It was believed that the Otherworld existed beneath the surface of the water.
How elves were viewed in the past is therefore not entirely clear. They may have been gods, or the boundary between gods and elves may have been vague. They may have been messengers of the gods or symbolic of the souls of the deceased.
Álfablót
In Scandinavia and likely the broader early Germanic world, álfablót, elf sacrifice, was the moment when ancestors were likely commemorated. By the end of October, the harvest had been gathered, the animals had been fattened, and it was time to thank the ancestors for what they had done for the family. It was presumably performed to ask the Álfar for fertility, both for the land and for the people themselves.
In the poem Austrfararvísur, the Norwegian skald Sigvatr Þórðarson describes his negative experience with a holiday in Sweden in 1019 while on a diplomatic mission to Västergötland. He and his companions had to find a place to stay and expected to be welcomed hospitably, which was considered sacred among Indo-European peoples. They were refused at the first farm, and the inhabitants told them that the place was holy. At the second farm, they were turned away again, and the lady of the house said they feared the wrath of Odin and were busy with an elf sacrifice.
After several failed attempts to find shelter, during which all the farmers they encountered were named Ölvir, they arrived at a man known to be the most hospitable in the region. However, even he received them unfriendly and referred to himself as the "guardian of the hoe." Sigvatr was disappointed in the hospitality of the Swedes and concluded that if this man was the "best," the others were likely even worse.
In contrast to the Irish Samhain celebrations and the blóts of Uppsala and Mære, álfablót was primarily held within the family and was led by the woman of the household. Nothing is known about the specific rituals because they were conducted in a domestic setting and remained secret from the outside world. It also appears that Odin was invoked and that the master of the household was referred to as Ǫlvir when performing the rituals. The first element of Ǫlvir means "beer," which was generally an important element in the offerings of the North Germans.
Like other forms of blót, it is likely that food and drink were offered to the elves, such as meat, beer, or other agricultural products, depending on what was available. The idea was that these offerings would win the favor and protection of the elves. The Icelandic Kormáks saga from the 13th century provides instructions for sacrificing a bull at an elf mound to heal a war wound. In contrast to the sacrifices that Sigvatr describes, this appears to have been a sacrifice that could be performed at any time of the year.
With the advent of Christianity, the álfablót, like many other pagan rituals, was suppressed or banned. The fact that it was a domestic and individual ritual made it harder to control and eradicate by missionaries and Christian rulers. Eventually, this kind of offering and ritual disappeared, although some aspects survived in later folklore, such as the belief in elves, giving small offerings, or respecting certain places associated with elves.
Composition of woman
The gods symbolize structure and beauty, and that is why we have dressed these characters in their finest. Both the man and the woman belong to the lower nobility, the class of the Jarls. The characters are named Harald and Astrid. Harald means "army leader" or "ruler of the army," while Astrid means "divine beauty" or "beloved." As heads of a small household, Harald and Astrid celebrate the ritual of Álfablót together with their immediate family and servants. Here is the composition of Jarl Harald.
In this context, Astrid takes on the leading role as she fulfills the function of priestess. In many Viking rituals, it was the woman who performed ritual actions, especially in domestic or family ceremonies. Harald is the patriarch of the family and commands oath-bound warriors under his leadership. However, these warriors, coming from the free class of karls, celebrate Álfablót with their own families, separate from the household.
The servants of Harald and Astrid are thralls, or members of the unfree class or slaves. Since they belong to the household, they participate in the festivities and celebrate Álfablót alongside the Jarl and his wife. This emphasizes the layered social structure in Viking society, where even the unfree class played a role in the rituals and customs of the elite.
Composition of Jarlkona Astrid
Drinking horn
During the Álfablót ritual, Astrid plays a central role, with her main task being to perform the offering correctly. For this, she uses a drinking horn, a traditional object made from cattle. Cattle held a sacred status among the Indo-European peoples, including the Vikings. This symbolism traces back to the mythical primordial cow Auðumbla, who, according to Norse mythology, gave life to mortals.
In other Indo-European cultures, such as among the Greeks and Romans, a similar ritual horn was called a rhyton. Drinking horns had strong ritual significance in these societies and were often used in sacrificial ceremonies. These objects were not always made from animal horns; sometimes the Romans, Germans, and Vikings even crafted drinking horns from materials like glass. This underscores the importance and symbolic power of the drinking horn in religious ceremonies and offerings.
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sacrifice bowl, blót boli
In addition to the drinking horn, a bowl known as the blót boli was also used during the Álfablót ritual for presenting liquid offerings. These bowls could be richly decorated, as beauty played a central role in the symbolism of the rituals. In the Viking Age, it was believed that the gods ruled over the cosmos, which represented structure, harmony, and aesthetics. Displaying beauty during rituals, for example by using finely crafted objects like the blót boli, was considered a tribute to the divine order.
The term blót boli refers to the blood of sacrificed animals, which was collected in these bowls and presented to the gods. In addition to blood, other liquid offerings were used, such as milk or even mead—a luxury drink that represented an even more valuable offering than animal blood. Thus, the blót boli not only served a practical purpose but was also a symbolic object that emphasized the value and dedication of the offerings.
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Underdress
Astrid wears an underdress, which not only served to provide warmth but also had a practical function in protecting the outer clothing. By wearing the underdress, the precious outer garments needed to be washed less frequently, helping to preserve the vibrant colors and delicate fabrics for a longer time. In an era when dyes and high-quality textiles were highly valuable, this was a clever way to ensure that the outer clothing, often richly adorned and of great symbolic value, remained in good condition.
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Viking shoes
Vikings often wore turnshoes, a type of footwear that was made inside out and then turned right side out, placing the seams on the inside. These shoes conformed well to the shape of the foot, providing a comfortable fit. In contrast to modern shoes, however, turnshoes offered less support to the ankles, making them less suitable for prolonged or intensive physical activities.
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Viking dress
Viking women typically wore dresses that varied in color and style, depending on their status and wealth. Color played an important role, and certain shades were more expensive, making them a symbol of prosperity. Blue, like the dress Astrid wears, was a color that radiated considerable status. This was because blue dyes, often derived from the woad plant, were relatively costly and labor-intensive to produce. Blue was thus associated with wealth and a higher social class. For Astrid, who dresses her best during rituals and special occasions, this blue dress is an appropriate choice, as it elegantly conveys her position and status as Jarlkona.
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Viking apron dress
The hangerok, an important garment in the Viking wardrobe, was an apron dress with shoulder straps that were fastened to the front panel using shield brooches. Although the apron dress provided extra warmth, it was primarily a status symbol. The fabric and embroidery of the apron dress indicated the wealth and social position of the wearer. In Astrid's case, the apron dress is richly embroidered, highlighting her high status as Jarlkona. Such refined embellishments were often reserved for formal or ceremonial occasions. Astrid likely wore her apron dress only during official events, such as rituals or festivities, while she would have dressed more simply in her daily life. Wearing the apron dress at such moments reinforced her authority and her role within the community.
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Shield brooches and jewelry distributors
Over her apron dress, Astrid wears shield brooches, which were an essential status symbol for Viking women. These brooches served not only as practical fastenings for clothing but also held significant symbolic value. The jewelry and items that hung from these shield brooches, such as keys, beads, and other decorative elements, made up an important part of their wealth and status. Wearing carefully crafted and richly decorated shield brooches was a way for Viking women to display their prosperity and social position. For Astrid, as Jarlkona, these brooches were not just a fashion accessory but also an important sign of her influence and authority within the community.
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Fur collar
Only wealthy Vikings could afford fur, which was an important status symbol in society. Fur was traded extensively in the Viking world, and the choice of specific types of fur, especially from expensive animals, contributed to the social status of the wearer. Astrid particularly loves fur, as it not only adds elegance to her appearance but is also essential for keeping her warm during the cold winters that follow Álfablót. The luxury and warmth of fur underline her high status as Jarlkona and emphasize the refinement and esteem she exudes through her clothing and accessories.
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Care & cosmetics
Often, objects such as combs or nail care sets were attached to brooches, which could be luxuriously decorated. These accessories were not only practical but also contributed to the presentation of beauty and self-care, elements that were essential in Viking culture. The gods and the cosmos symbolized beauty and structure, underscoring the importance of personal hygiene and grooming.
It was mandatory to wash oneself before participating in a ritual or visiting a sacred place. This practice can be seen as a form of respect towards the gods. The Christian ritual of baptism and the use of holy water may have derived from this. Medieval sources mention that Viking men washed themselves more frequently than average, indicating a culture that valued personal hygiene. This practice is strikingly similar to current habits of Hindus in India, where ritual purification is an important aspect of their religious practices.
The word cosmetics itself refers to the cosmos, emphasizing the connection between beauty and the spiritual world. Viking women used various cosmetics, such as eye makeup (Kohl), possibly face powder, and engaged in hair care. Additionally, it is likely that they also used perfume. This idea of scent may have contributed to the Christian tradition of using incense, which is also intended to send fragrance up to the gods. Thus, scents and beauty were not only a matter of aesthetics but also a way to strengthen religious and spiritual connections.
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Torque, Oath Ring
The torque has a proto-Indo-European origin and served as an important symbol within various societies. Torques, along with oath rings and arm rings, represent the taking of an oath and the entering into commitments. This is particularly relevant since the proto-Indo-European society had a strong oath-bound structure, where fidelity and loyalty were crucial.
Celtic warriors are often depicted wearing torques, which emphasized their status and loyalty. Archaeological discoveries have revealed luxurious gold torques, but the essence of the torque remains the same, regardless of whether it is made from wood, steel, or precious metal. This illustrates the breadth of the use of torques across different cultures. Both the Celts, Vikings, Romans, and Indo-Iranians wore torques, highlighting their shared cultural and moral values. These ornaments not only served as decorations but were also imbued with meaning, connected to identity, status, and social obligations. Wedding rings may have been derived from this tradition.
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Viking Jewelry
Jewelry played a crucial role in the Viking world, not only as decorative elements but also as symbols of wealth and social status. They served as important expressions of identity and craftsmanship, with the wearing of jewelry emphasizing the social position of the wearer.
Furthermore, jewelry or parts of it were often used as a means of payment. In Viking society, the weight of precious metals, such as silver or gold, was a direct indicator of the value of the jewelry. This system of weight measurement made it possible to use jewelry in trade practices, where the value of goods and services could be established based on the weight of the metal.
Keys
Vikings used locks and keys as important means of security and storage. Not only house doors but also chests, in which riches and valuable objects were safely stored, were often fitted with locks. These chests served as storage places for jewelry, precious fabrics, and other treasures, making them essential for preserving wealth within Viking communities.
Additionally, keys also held a symbolic meaning. Women wore keys as a sign of their marriage, status, wealth, and power. The wearing of keys represented not only their role as housekeepers and managers of the goods within the home but also their authority within the family and community. Keys were seen as symbols of access and control, highlighting the position of women in Viking society.
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Viking Knife
Knives were primarily used as tools in Viking culture, but they also played an important role in rituals. In the context of rituals, knives could be used to perform blood sacrifices (blót). Animals were ritually slaughtered and offered to the gods, with blood and fat being presented as sacred gifts.
In addition to offering these essential parts of the animal, the meat was often cooked. Part of the meat was sacrificed to the gods, while the rest was eaten by those present. This created a communal meal with the gods, which served not only as a tribute to them but also as a way to strengthen the bond between the community and the divine. This ritual reflected the Indo-European principle of hospitality, where the act of receiving guests and being a good host was central.
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Viking belt
The belt played a multifunctional role in Viking culture. It not only helped to keep clothing in place and ensured that it maintained its shape, but it also served as a status symbol. Belts were often adorned with intricate decorations and made from durable materials, highlighting their value and the wealth of the wearer.
Additionally, belts served as handy carriers for various everyday items. Many tools, such as knives, pouches, axes, and other items, were worn on the belt, making them easily accessible. This made the belt not only functional but also an important part of Viking clothing and style, which was both practical and aesthetically appealing.
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